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Testicle, Malignant Tumors
Article Last Updated: Oct 30, 2006
AUTHOR AND EDITOR INFORMATION
Section 1 of 10  
Author: Dawn Light, MD, MPH, Clinical Assistant Professor of Radiology and Pediatrics, Department of Radiology, Consulting Staff, Dayton Children's Medical Center
Dawn Light is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Academy of Family Physicians, American College of Radiology, and Phi Beta Kappa
Editors: Steven Perlmutter, MD, FACR, Clinical Associate Professor, Radiology Residency Program Director, Radiology Medical Director, Department of Radiology, University Hospital at Stony Brook; Bernard D Coombs, MB, ChB, PhD, Consulting Staff, Department of Specialist Rehabilitation Services, Hutt Valley District Health Board, New Zealand; Joshua A Becker, MD, Professor, Department of Radiology, New York University School of Medicine; Robert M Krasny, MD, Consulting Staff, Department of Radiology, The Angeles Clinic and Research Institute; Eugene C Lin, MD, Consulting Staff, Department of Radiology, Virginia Mason Medical Center
Author and Editor Disclosure
Synonyms and related keywords:
testicular germ cell tumors, germ cell tumors, GCTs, seminomas, nonseminomas, teratomas, teratocarcinomas, testicular metastases, primary testicular tumors, testicular cancer, embryonal cell tumors, choriocarcinomas, yolk sac tumors, endodermal sinus tumors, nongerminal testicular tumors, stromal Leydig cell tumors, Sertoli cell tumors
Background
Classification of malignant tumors of the testicle
Germ cell tumors (GCTs) account for nearly all (95%) of primary testicular tumors. The GCT line is fairly evenly split between seminomas (45%) and nonseminomas (50%). Of the nonseminomas, mixed GCTs are most common (40%). Teratomas and teratocarcinomas are considered malignant in adults and constitute 30% of nonseminomatous lesions. The embryonal cell tumor is the classic pure-cell, nonseminomatous tumor and is relatively uncommon (20%). Choriocarcinoma represents the most lethal but least common (1%) nonseminomatous type.
Yolk sac tumors, which are also known as endodermal sinus tumors, are the most common prepubertal GCTs. They may be benign, but most often, they are malignant. Most affected patients require surgery and chemotherapy because of the aggressive nature of the tumors, but the overall prognosis is excellent.
Among nongerminal testicular tumors, stromal Leydig cell tumors and Sertoli cell tumors constitute the remaining 5% of primary testicular tumors; these are rare tumors that are malignant in only about 10% of the cases.
Lymphoma, leukemia, and melanoma are the most common malignancies that metastasize to the testicle.
Screening for testicular cancer
Ultrasonographic screening for testicular cancer is not currently recommended, because this disease does not meet the criteria for an acceptable screening program wherein early treatment must have a success rate superior to that of the treatment initiated when the patient is clinically symptomatic.
For cancer screening to be successful, the screening tool must be highly sensitive and specific, widely available, cost-effective, and acceptable to the patients. Also, the test must allow clinicians to identify disease at a stage where they can improve the patient's clinical outcome and/or clearly identify patients at risk.
Screening for testicular cancer is not a current recommendation because patients with stage 1 or 2 (2A or 2B) testicular cancer have a long-term, disease-free survival rate greater than 95%; in patients with bulky retroperitoneal nodes and/or pulmonary or visceral metastasis, this rate is 60-80%. A birth-cohort effect is observed for testicular cancer in the United States and Europe, but the etiology of this effect is not known. The false-negative rate for ultrasonographic identification of testicular lesions is extremely low.
Pathophysiology
The specific pathophysiologic mechanisms for neoplasm induction have not been described, but testicular cancer is thought to result from the differentiation of totipotential germ cells. Studies of cancer in familial groups suggest that discordant tumor histology occurs in only 20% of identical twin pairs, whereas the discordance rate is 67% in sibling pairs. Thus, evidence supports a familial tendency toward testicular malignancy.
A current molecular model (Looijenga et al, 1999) suggests that mutations in the 12p chromosomal segment of the malignant cell sequences are associated with tumor development. Patients with ambiguous genitalia have the highest risk of testicular malignancy. Among patients with a known testicular cancer, the metachronous risk in the contralateral testicle is 5%. The malignancy risk in men with cryptorchidism is 2-4%, and the risk in patients with subfertility is 1% or less.
The precise malignancy risk associated with testicular microlithiasis (>5 microcalcifications within a testicle) is unclear. Retrospective studies (Bach et al, 2001) of patients with known malignancy or ultrasound for a clinical finding demonstrate high concordance between microlithiasis and malignancy, but results from a prospective analysis (Peterson et al, 2001) show only a 5-10% risk of coexisting tumors.
Mature-appearing testicular teratomas are considered malignant in adults but benign in children.
Frequency
United States
Testicular cancer is the most common solid malignancy in males aged 18-35 years and currently represents 1% of all cancers in men. McKiernan et al (1999) reported that the rate of testicular cancer increased by 51% between 1973 and 1995. Strong evidence suggests a birth-cohort effect, but the etiology of this cohort has not been elucidated.
International
Carcinoma in situ (CIS) is reported to occur in less than 1% of healthy males. Incidence studies in Europe reveal a similar increase in the frequency of disease over the past 40 years.
Mortality/Morbidity
- Seminoma is highly curable when detected early. The 5-year survival is reported to be 95% for stage I disease and 85-90% for stage 2 disease.
- For nonseminomatous GCTs, the results are less favorable, with a 5-year survival rate of 86% for stage I disease. The corresponding survival rate for teratocarcinomas is only 70%.
- Choriocarcinoma has a dismal prognosis; almost no patients survive 5 years after the disease presentation. Choriocarcinomas have the worst prognosis of all the testicular malignancies.
Race
Testicular cancer primarily affects white males. Blacks rarely develop this cancer: 9 cases per million population, compared with 50 cases per million population in other racial groups.
Sex
Patients with ambiguous genitalia have a 25% risk of developing testicular malignancy.
Age
Testicular cancer is the most common solid malignancy in males aged 18-35 years. Seminomas, which peak in the fourth or fifth decade of life, are most common at the extremes of age. Choriocarcinomas are most commonly reported in those aged 10-30 years. Yolk sac tumors are usually composed of pure cell lines and most often seen in patients younger than 3 years.
Clinical Details
Staging of testicular cancer
- Stage 1: Confined to the testicle and the spermatic cord
- Stage 2: Includes metastatic lymph nodes below the diaphragm
- Stage 2A: Involves nonpalpable nodes
- Stage 2B: Involves bulky adenopathy
- Stage 3: Metastasis above the diaphragm
- Stage 3A: Confined to the lymph nodes
- Stage 3B: Extra total metastasis
Carcinoma in situ
At the time of the initial surgery, CIS is found in approximately 5% of obtained biopsy samples of the contralateral testicle. The natural history of CIS is progression to frank malignancy at 5 years in 50% of cases. However, the literature does not support routine biopsy of the opposite testis in cases of testicular cancer. The adverse effects of castration are high, and the ease with which the tumors are treated suggests thatsurveillance with treatment of early tumors is preferred.
Differential diagnosis
The differential diagnosis of intratesticular masses includes several entities. Epidermoid cysts of the testicle are seen as a round, sharply demarcated lesion in the testicle. Dilated rete testes are clusters of testicular mediastinal dilated tubules that empty into the epididymis and are often associated with epididymal cysts. Testicular abscess is commonly linked with severe epididymitis, pain, fever, and redness and induration of the scrotum. Hematoma can be associated with a history of testicular trauma, and one must be certain that these findings completely resolve, because incidental trauma is often the presentation for a subsymptomatic testicular mass.
Hormonal changes
Most of the hormonal abnormalities in seminomas are elevated beta–human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) levels; thus, the presence of elevated alpha1-fetoprotein levels decrease the likelihood that a tumor is a seminoma. Increased hormone levels occur in about 8% of patients with seminomas and 60% of those with nonseminomatous cancers.
Preferred Examination
Ultrasonography is the standard imaging technique used to identify testicular carcinoma. It has a high sensitivity, but it must be combined with physical examination to achieve the best specificity. More than 95% of testicular parenchymal abnormalities are identifiable on routine sonograms, but several other lesions commonly mimic testicular cancer. Ultrasonography is more specific in the presence of a palpable mass. Nonpalpable intratesticular lesions larger than 1 cm are unlikely to be malignant.
Testicle, Trauma
Other Problems to be Considered
Abscess or focal orchitis
Focal atrophy
Hematoma
Infarct
Tubular ectasia of the rete testes
Sarcoid
Metastases from lymphoma or leukemia
Findings
Plain radiographs have no role in the initial diagnosis of testicular cancer. Metastasis to the chest is fairly common and often seen on screening chest radiographs. However, computed tomography (CT) scanning is more sensitive and specific for staging the disease.
Findings
CT scan imaging is routinely performed as part of the initial staging process, but it is not sensitive or specific enough to be useful in evaluating undiagnosed testicular masses. Chest, abdominal, and pelvic CT scan studies are indicated for the evaluation of retroperitoneal and mediastinal metastases.
CT scanning of the chest is especially useful when mediastinal or parenchymal lung disease caused by testicular cancer is suspected. This modality or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is also indicated in patients with neurologic signs or symptoms.
The most common site of disease recurrence is the retroperitoneum; thus, CT scanning is the best tool to detect recurrence.
False Positives/Negatives
Lymphoma can be difficult to distinguish from metastatic testicular cancer. Use tissue sampling from the abnormal testicle to make this distinction.
Findings
MRI is not used as the initial modality to evaluate testicular masses.
Degree of Confidence
Increased signal intensity in the testicle is seen on T2-weighted images of testicular malignancies, but it is not specific for the disease.
Findings
Testicular ultrasonography is used to determine the location of a palpable mass when testicular cancer is suspected. Generally, palpable extra-testicular lesions are benign. On the other hand, intratesticular masses, especially if they are palpable, are likely to be malignant and must be surgically explored. Therefore, ultrasonography is useful for localizing palpable abnormalities and to triage them for surgical repair when indicated.
The examination is usually performed with a high-frequency linear transducer to compare the echotexture of the 2 testicles for areas of heterogeneity. Testicular cancers are hypoechoic relative to the surrounding parenchyma in about 95% of cases. Published findings (Carmignani et al, 2005; Schwerk et al, 1987) suggest that seminomas are often more homogeneously hypoechoic and that nonseminomatous lesions are often more cystic, with interspersed areas of calcification.
The tumor tissue type cannot be reliably differentiated solely by its ultrasonographic appearance. Commonly, seminomas are well defined within the tunica albuginea and homogeneously hypoechoic. Embryonal cell cancers typically are hypoechoic, with interspersed cystic components. Teratomas and choriocarcinomas are often heterogeneous with multiple internal calcifications present. Stromal cell tumors (eg, Leydig and Sertoli cell tumors) are generally well defined and hypoechoic, but calcifications are frequently found. Lymphoma and leukemia of the testicle generally present as an ill-defined, diffuse process of decreased echogenicity.
When multiple lesions are present, the differential diagnosis should be expanded to include metastatic processes, such as leukemia and lymphoma, and inflammatory processes, such as sarcoid. Testicular lymphoma can be difficult to diagnose when both testes are homogeneously hypoechoic.
Testicular microlithiasis (>5 or more microcalcifications within a testicle) results from concentric cores of calcification of intrasubstance collagen fibers and is also associated with increased testicular cancer rates; case studies of patients with testicular tumors suggest a high rate of microlithiasis, but prospective evaluations of patients with microlithiasis have failed to demonstrate more than a minimal increase in the frequency of such tumors. Annual ultrasound screening of patients with microlithiasis has been suggested by some authors, but prospective studies have failed to demonstrate a positive cost-benefit ratio at this time. Azzopardi tumor is the name used for a presumed "spontaneously burned out" tumor, wherein malignant cells spontaneously necrose and calcify, perhaps related to outgrowing the blood supply.
Degree of Confidence
Although the specificity and sensitivity have not been reported, general consensus exists that an ultrasonographic finding of a solid or mixed cystic and solid intratesticular mass is an indication for surgical exploration.
False Positives/Negatives
False-negative results are most common in the infiltrative malignant processes. When a condition such as leukemia or lymphoma causes bilateral diffusely decreased echogenicity, the infiltrative malignant process can be difficult to recognize. False-positive results are seen in a variety of conditions (see Images 1-12). Dilated rete testes can be masslike, and they can simulate a predominantly cystic mass. The imaging characteristics of epidermoid tumors can be indistinguishable from those of germ cell lesions. Cho et al (2002) report that the classic appearance for an epidermoid is a heterogeneous mass, possibly with concentric hyperechoic and hypoechoic layers forming a ring. The epidermoid is often avascular. An abscess or phlegmon of the testicle is hypoechoic and often associated with increased vascularity. Testicular infarction can present as ill-defined decreased echogenicity in a testicle, suggesting a diffusely infiltrative malignant process. A troublesome scenario can occur when a patient presents with a history of trauma and the sonogram shows a hypoechoic focus presumed to be a hematoma. Distinguishing a hematoma from a testicular tumor can be impossible on the initial images. Because such tumors can be detected after incidental trauma, ultrasonographic follow-up of suspected hematomas is recommended to ensure their complete resolution.
The treatment of testicular cancer is orchiectomy. Ultrasonography is used only to suggest the diagnosis and exclude benign scrotal masses. When testicular malignancy is suspected, the surgeon uses an inguinal approach to avoid contaminating the scrotum. Some institutions are performing testis-sparing procedures when the ultrasonographic findings suggest a benign intratesticular mass such as an epidermoid or a teratoma. With regard to treatment and adverse effects, radical orchiectomy with ligation of the spermatic cord at the inguinal ring is the recommended surgical procedure for suspected testicular cancer. Infertility may be related to retrograde ejaculation caused by retroperitoneal lymph node dissection or the toxic effects of chemotherapy or radiation therapy. Cisplatin is the mainstay of chemotherapy and is associated with nausea, vomiting, and nephrotoxicity. Hypomagnesemia-induced Raynaud phenomenon is also common. In adults, even nonaggressive-appearing teratomas are known to develop metastasis. For this reason, careful excision of all teratomas is recommended in adults. Patient Education: For excellent patient education resources, visit eMedicine's Men's Health Center and Cancer and Tumors Center. Also, see eMedicine's patient education articles Cancer of the Testicle and Testicular Self-Exam.
Medical/Legal Pitfalls
- Tissue diagnosis should be strongly considered in any solid intratesticular mass, especially if a palpable abnormality is present.
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Testicular infarction can mimic an infiltrative tumor. |
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The depiction here is classic for a seminoma. Testicular malignancies appear as a hypoechoic mass in the vast majority of cases. |
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Compared with other types of tumors, mixed germ-cell tumors are more likely to have cystic areas and calcifications scattered within the tumor. |
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This is another seminoma. On sonograms, a seminoma is often more homogeneous than nonseminomatous cancers. |
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This is a mixed germ cell tumor. Testicular cancers can be ill-defined and subtle. |
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Both computed tomography (CT) scanning and ultrasonography have been used to search for metastatic retroperitoneal lymphadenopathy, but CT scanning is more commonly used. |
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Dilated rete testes can mimic a cystic neoplasm, but they are usually elongated on orthogonal views and clearly located in the testicular mediastinum. |
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Testicular sarcoid can mimic seminoma when it presents as a solid-appearing testicular mass |
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This is a seminoma. Occasionally, testicular tumors occur at a more advanced stage. If the entire testicle is involved, comparison with the normal side may show diffusely decreased echogenicity. Sometimes, epididymal invasion can be noted on sonograms. |
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This is a seminoma. Sometimes epididymal invasion can be noted on sonograms. |
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Testicular cancer is not typically hypervascular. |
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Testicular epidermoids can mimic solid malignancies. |
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Testicle, Malignant Tumors excerpt Article Last Updated: Oct 30, 2006
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