AUTHOR AND EDITOR INFORMATION

Section 1 of 11  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• Multimedia
• References

INTRODUCTION

Section 2 of 11  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• Multimedia
• References

Background

Central cord syndrome (CCS), an acute cervical spinal cord injury (SCI), was initially described by Schneider and colleagues in 1954. It is marked by a disproportionately greater impairment of motor function in the upper extremities than in the lower ones, as well as by bladder dysfunction and a variable amount of sensory loss below the level of injury.^{1, 2}

Although CCS has been reported to occur more frequently among older persons with cervical spondylosis who sustain hyperextension injury, it can be found in persons of any age and can be associated with various etiologies, injury mechanisms, and predisposing factors.² CCS is the most common incomplete SCI syndrome. (See also Injuries to the Central Nervous System: Introduction, on Medscape, and the eMedicine articles Spinal Cord Injuries, Spinal Cord Trauma and Related Diseases, and Spinal Cord Injury: Definition, Epidemiology, Pathophysiology.)

Pathophysiology

CCS most often occurs after a hyperextension injury in an individual with long-standing cervical spondylosis. (See also the eMedicine article Cervical Spondylosis.) Injury may result from posterior pinching of the cord by a buckled ligamentum flavum or from anterior compression of the cord by osteophytes.³ Historically, spinal cord damage was believed to originate from concussion or contusion of the cord with stasis of axoplasmic flow, causing edematous injury rather than destructive hematomyelia. More recently, autopsy studies have demonstrated that CCS may be caused by bleeding into the central part of the cord, portending a less favorable prognosis. Studies have also shown that CCS probably is associated with axonal disruption in the lateral columns at the level of the injury to the spinal cord with relative preservation of the grey matter.

The syndrome also may be associated with fracture dislocation and compression fracture, especially in a congenitally narrowed spinal canal. These anteroposterior compressive forces also distribute the greatest damaging effect on the central mass of the cord substance.

CCS-related motor impairment results from the pattern of lamination of the corticospinal and spinothalamic tracts in the spinal cord. Sacral segments are the most lateral, with lumbar, thoracic, and cervical components arranged somatotopically, proceeding medially toward the central canal.

Frequency

United States

The prevalence rate is 15.7-25%.

Mortality/Morbidity

This syndrome is generally associated with a favorable prognosis for the achievement of some degree of neurologic and functional recovery.¹

Sex

Similar to all other SCIs, CCS predominantly affects men.

Age

CCS has a bimodal distribution; in young persons, CCS tends to result from trauma, while in older individuals, it is typically caused by falls sustained by persons with preexisting spondylosis.

CLINICAL

Section 3 of 11  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• Multimedia
• References

History

• Symptoms occur following trauma (most commonly falls) and consist of upper and lower extremity weakness with varying degrees of sensory loss.
• Pain and temperature sensations, as well as the sensation of light touch and of position sense, may be impaired below the level of injury.
• Neck pain and urinary retention are common.

Physical

Physical findings are limited to the neurologic system and consist of upper motor neuron weakness in the upper and lower extremities. This impairment can be described as follows:

• Impairment in the upper extremities is usually greater than in the lower extremities and is especially prevalent in the muscles of the hand.
• Sensory loss is variable, although sacral sensation is usually present. Anal wink, anal sphincter tone, and Babinski reflexes should be tested.
• Muscle stretch reflexes may initially be absent but will eventually return along with variable degrees of spasticity in affected muscles.

Causes

• The most common cause of CCS is trauma.
• In older adults, premorbid cervical spondylosis is a significant risk factor.
• Accordingly, even minor falls may result in tetraplegia in populations with a narrowed spinal canal.
• In younger age groups, CCS results from major trauma, such as that associated with cervical fracture/subluxations.

DIFFERENTIALS

Section 4 of 11  

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• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• Multimedia
• References

Other Problems to Be Considered

Cruciate paralysis of Bell
Bilateral brachial plexus injury or avulsion of cervical roots

WORKUP

Section 5 of 11  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• Multimedia
• References

Lab Studies

• No specific laboratory blood tests are required to support the diagnosis of CCS.

Imaging Studies

• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography (CT) scanning, and the production of plain radiographs of the cervical spine can facilitate the diagnosis of CCS.¹⁷
• • MRI demonstrates direct evidence of spinal cord impingement from bone, a disc, or a hematoma.⁴
  • CT scanning of the cervical spine shows spinal canal compromise and allows the indirect approximation of the degree of spinal cord impingement.
  • Radiographic films of the cervical spine delineate fractures and dislocations, as well as the degree and extent of spondylotic changes. Flexion/extension views assist in the evaluation of ligamentous stability.

TREATMENT

Section 6 of 11  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• Multimedia
• References

Rehabilitation Program

Physical Therapy

The focus of physical therapy in CCS is the preservation of range of motion (ROM) and the enhancement of mobility skills. The strengthening of any preserved lower extremity musculature is essential, as are trunk balance and stabilization. Safe transfer and wheelchair mobility are other goals to be accomplished prior to the initiation of gait training. Patients with CCS offer a unique challenge for the physical therapist with regard to ambulation and gait training. Despite the usual preservation of some lower extremity strength, upper extremity deficits can limit the use of possible assistive devices and, ultimately, the functional quality of ambulation. For example, platform walkers are often used to compensate for deficient hand strength, although walking with this assistive device is frequently of limited functional value.

Occupational Therapy

Given the predominance of upper extremity weakness that occurs in CCS, the restoration of the basic activities of daily living (ADLs), upper extremity strength, and ROM are the main goals of occupational therapy. Splinting is often used to maintain the functional position of the hand and to prevent the formation of contractures in the fingers. Surface electromyelogram (EMG) biofeedback can often be beneficial to patients in the isolation of specific weak muscles in the upper extremities. Facilitating self-care skills by selecting appropriate assistive devices and training patients in their usage is another priority.

Speech Therapy

A speech therapist should be involved in the treatment of patients with CCS who have dysphagia from the head position maintained by cervical orthoses or as a result of anterior cervical spine fusion. Various compensatory strategies need to be taught to these patients to make swallowing safer and to prevent aspiration.

Recreational Therapy

The primary goal of recreational therapy is to help patients with CCS to return to preinjury areas of interest. Potential sources of recreational activities are explored with the patient, and the adaptive devices (for instance, an adapted fishing rod) that will allow the individual to enjoy previous activities are explored and provided.

Medical Issues/Complications

• Autonomic dysreflexia
• • Autonomic dysreflexia (AD) is a disorder of autonomic homeostasis.
  • Sensory input from bladder distension or other noxious stimuli induce generalized sympathetic activity, resulting in vasoconstriction and hypertension.
  • Proper medical management of the skin, bowel, and bladder should prevent most occurrences. A thorough search should be made for the nociceptive source, and when found, it should be removed/treated immediately.
  • If mechanical means do not resolve the syndrome, medical management should be directed toward the reduction of blood pressure.
  • Nifedipine and transdermal nitroglycerin are often used.
• Neurogenic bladder
• • Acutely injured patients often experience bladder retention that requires the placement of a Foley catheter for drainage.
  • Once fluid status has been stabilized, the indwelling catheter should be discontinued and bladder training, as well as intermittent catheterization, should begin.
  • Bladder function usually returns in the first 6 months.
  • Studies show that 52-84% of patients eventually have normal, spontaneous voids.
  • Patients who do not return to normal bladder function should be taught to do intermittent catheterization if manual dexterity permits.
• Spasticity
• • Initially, reflexes are depressed, but once the period of spinal shock resolves, patients may experience increased spasticity in the upper and lower extremities.
  • Skillful nursing care can reduce the nociceptive and exteroceptive stimuli that exacerbate hypertonia.
  • Proper bed positioning and a regular stretching program are essential to spasticity reduction and contracture prevention.
  • Consider a trial of medication if spasms begin to cause discomfort, interfere with sleep, or cause functional impairment.
  • Lioresal (baclofen) is the initial drug of choice for spasticity.
• Neuropathic pain
• • Patients with CCS occasionally experience allodynia below the level of injury.
  • The first line of treatment is evaluation and removal of possible exacerbating factors (eg, infections, new pressure ulcers).
  • After that, the possible introduction of anticonvulsant medications should be considered.
• Pressure ulcers
• • Sensory loss, resulting in a patient's decreased awareness of continued pressure and shear forces on the skin, contributes to the formation of pressure ulcers.
  • Prevention involves decreasing the amount of pressure and the length of time that it is applied, as well as eliminating shear. Special mattresses and wheelchair cushions protect bony prominences.
  • Frequent changes in position (ie, turning while in bed, pressure relief when the patient is in a wheelchair) are paramount.
  • The initial treatment of a pressure ulcer is the elimination of pressure, followed by local dressing changes. If the wound progresses, plastic surgery consultation, if indicated, should be considered.
  • Physiatric management should also include patient and/or family education regarding skin care and surveillance.
• Neurogenic bowel
• • Given the lack of bowel control that often results from SCI, patients should be started on a regular bowel program to avoid incontinence. In addition, the patient should have adequate fluid intake to avoid constipation/fecal impaction.
  • The use of evacuants and/or manual removal by way of digital stimulation or other methods should be instituted.

Surgical Intervention

Surgery is rarely indicated because of the inherently favorable prognosis for CCS patients. However, surgical intervention should be considered when progress is not consistent after an initial period of improvement, when compression of the spinal cord persists, when gross spinal instability is present, and when neurologic deficits progress.

Consultations

• Neurologic surgeon
• Orthopedic surgeon
• Vocational rehabilitation specialist - These experts also should be consulted to facilitate a return to work or school.

MEDICATION

Section 7 of 11  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• Multimedia
• References

Since 1990, intravenous methylprednisolone has been given within the first 8 hours following injury to all patients with acute SCI. A multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial showed that patients who were treated with steroids within 8 hours of injury had significant neurologic recovery compared with those who received a placebo.⁵

Drug Category: Corticosteroids

Steroids may suppress membrane breakdown by inhibiting lipid peroxidation and hydrolysis at the injury site. Vasoactive byproducts of arachidonic acid also may be reduced, improving local blood flow to the injured spinal cord.

FOLLOW-UP

Section 8 of 11  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• Multimedia
• References

Further Inpatient Care

• Admit to neurosurgical intensive care unit for neurologic monitoring.
• Blood pressure monitoring is essential because mild hypertension is often recommended to ensure adequate blood flow to the spinal cord in the first 12-24 hours.
• Perform prophylaxis for deep venous thrombosis (DVT), preferably with low molecular weight heparin.
• Parenteral feeding is often necessary because of an adynamic ileus.
• Insert a Foley catheter for bladder retention problems.
• Initiate a regular bowel program.
• Pay special attention to skin care (eg, regular turning schedule, specialized mattress).

Further Outpatient Care

• Carefully monitor neurologic recovery and the possible development of complications.
• Spasticity, pressure ulcers, and neuropathic pain are commonly noted.
• Provide whatever durable medical equipment (DME) the patient may need to facilitate safe ambulation or other mobility, as well as transfers, ADLs, or a return to vocational, avocational, educational, or social pursuits.

In/Out Patient Meds

• Lioresal is often indicated to treat spasticity that interferes with function.
• Anticonvulsants (eg, carbamazepine, gabapentin) may be prescribed to treat recalcitrant neuropathic pain.⁶

Complications

• Pain/hyperpathia
• Bladder retention
• Spasticity

Prognosis

• The prognosis for patients with CCS who are aged less than 50 years is good. Within a short time, 97% of these individuals recover, regaining the ability to ambulate and complete self-care tasks. Only 17% of patients aged more than 50 years recover.
• Favorable long-term prognostic factors include good hand function, evidence of early motor recovery, documented increases in upper and lower extremity strength during initial rehabilitation, young age, and an absence of lower extremity neurologic impairment at admission to rehabilitation.

Patient Education

• If necessary, patients and family members should be taught passive ROM and stretching exercises to maintain joint mobility. They should also be instructed in appropriate strengthening exercises.

MISCELLANEOUS

Section 9 of 11  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• Multimedia
• References

Medical/Legal Pitfalls

• Failure to recognize cervical spine instability

MULTIMEDIA

Section 10 of 11  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• Multimedia
• References

Media file 1:  Illustration of the pathophysiology of central cord syndrome. Note the "pincer" effect on the central cord by anterior and posterior compression.
	View Full Size Image
Media type:  Illustration

REFERENCES

Section 11 of 11

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• Multimedia
• References

1. Massaro F, Lanotte M, Faccani G. Acute traumatic central cord syndrome. Acta Neurol (Napoli). Apr 1993;15(2):97-105. [Medline].
2. Schneider RC, Cherry G, Pantek H. The syndrome of acute central cervical spinal cord injury; with special reference to the mechanisms involved in hyperextension injuries of cervical spine. J Neurosurg. Nov 1954;11(6):546-77. [Medline].
3. Quencer RM, Bunge RP, Egnor M, et al. Acute traumatic central cord syndrome: MRI-pathological correlations. Neuroradiology. 1992;34(2):85-94. [Medline].
4. Dai L. Magnetic resonance imaging of acute central cord syndrome: correlation with prognosis. Chin Med Sci J. Jun 2001;16(2):107-10. [Medline].
5. Bracken MB, Shepard MJ, Collins WF, et al. A randomized, controlled trial of methylprednisolone or naloxone in the treatment of acute spinal-cord injury. Results of the Second National Acute Spinal Cord Injury Study. N Engl J Med. May 17 1990;322(20):1405-11. [Medline].
6. Haller H, Leblhuber F, Trenkler J, et al. Treatment of chronic neuropathic pain after traumatic central cervical cord lesion with gabapentin. J Neural Transm. Sep 2003;110(9):977-81. [Medline].
7. Chen TY, Lee ST, Lui TN, et al. Efficacy of surgical treatment in traumatic central cord syndrome. Surg Neurol. Nov 1997;48(5):435-40; discussion 441. [Medline].
8. Maroon JC, Abla AA, Wilberger JI, et al. Central cord syndrome. Clin Neurosurg. 1991;37:612-21. [Medline].
9. Nath M, Wheeler JS Jr, Walter JS. Urologic aspects of traumatic central cord syndrome. J Am Paraplegia Soc. Jul 1993;16(3):160-4. [Medline].
10. Roth EJ, Lawler MH, Yarkony GM. Traumatic central cord syndrome: clinical features and functional outcomes. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. Jan 1990;71(1):18-23. [Medline].
11. Siddall PJ, Taylor DA, McClelland JM, et al. Pain report and the relationship of pain to physical factors in the first 6 months following spinal cord injury. Pain. May 1999;81(1-2):187-97. [Medline].
12. Tow AM, Kong KH. Central cord syndrome: functional outcome after rehabilitation. Spinal Cord. Mar 1998;36(3):156-60. [Medline].
13. Waters RL, Adkins RH, Sie IH, et al. Motor recovery following spinal cord injury associated with cervical spondylosis: a collaborative study. Spinal Cord. Dec 1996;34(12):711-5. [Medline].
14. Yamazaki T, Yanaka K, Fujita K, et al. Traumatic central cord syndrome: analysis of factors affecting the outcome. Surg Neurol. Feb 2005;63(2):95-9; discussion 99-100. [Medline].
15. McKinley W, Santos K, Meade M, Brooke K. Incidence and outcomes of spinal cord injury clinical syndromes. J Spinal Cord Med. 2007;30(3):215-24. [Medline].
16. Aito S, D'Andrea M, Werhagen L, et al. Neurological and functional outcome in traumatic central cord syndrome. Spinal Cord. Apr 2007;45(4):292-7. [Medline].
17. Song J, Mizuno J, Inoue T, et al. Clinical evaluation of traumatic central cord syndrome: emphasis on clinical significance of prevertebral hyperintensity, cord compression, and intramedullary high-signal intensity on magnetic resonance imaging. Surg Neurol. Feb 2006;65(2):117-23. [Medline].

Article Last Updated: Dec 20, 2007