AUTHOR AND EDITOR INFORMATION

Section 1 of 10  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• References

INTRODUCTION

Section 2 of 10  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• References

Background

Splenic enlargement is generally first suspected on physical examination. One third of newborns and 10% of children may normally have a palpable spleen. The tip of the normal, palpable spleen is soft, smooth, nontender and less than 1-2 cm below the left costal margin. A pathologically enlarged spleen is often firm, it may have an abnormal surface, and it is frequently associated with signs and symptoms of the underlying disease. When the tip of the spleen is enlarged more than 1-2 cm below the costal margin, further evaluation should be considered.

Pathophysiology

Anatomy

The spleen is the largest lymphoid organ in the body. The spleen and the lymph nodes are the major components of the mononuclear-phagocyte system (MPS). They serve as filters that remove damaged cells, microorganisms, and particulate matter, and they deliver antigens to the immune system. The MPS, originally called the reticuloendothelial system, consists of fixed phagocytic cells in different organs. These phagocytes locally interact with lymphocytes and play an essential role in the recognition of antigens and their interaction with immunocompetent cells.

The splenic tissue consists of red and white pulp lying in a capsule. Blood enters the spleen through the splenic artery, a branch of the celiac artery. It then travels into the smaller arterioles and approaches the white pulp. The white pulp, rich in T and B lymphocytes, receives plasma for antigen processing. Splenic macrophages efficiently ingest these intravenous antigens and deliver them to the immunocompetent cells of the spleen for antibody production. The remaining hemoconcentrated blood continues into the contiguous red pulp, whose sinuses and cords are also lined with macrophages.

The red pulp forms most of the splenic tissue and consists of splenic cords whose circulation is designated as open because no well-defined endothelial lining is present. To exit the cords, blood must pass through 1- to 5-µm slits in this fenestrated basement membrane to reach the venous sinusoids. The circulation through the cords is slow and congested. This delay provides prolonged exposure of blood cells, bacteria, and particulate matter to the dense mononuclear-phagocyte elements in the red pulp.

After reaching the sinuses, blood from the red pulp empties into the splenic vein, which joins the superior mesenteric vein to form the hepatic portal vein. Because no valves are present in the splenic venous system, the pressure in the splenic vein reflects the pressure in the portal vein.

Function

One of the primary functions of the spleen is the filtration of defective cells. Erythrocytes slowly pass through the hypoxic and acidotic environment of the splenic cords and then squeeze through narrow slits into the sinusoids. Although healthy erythrocytes readily accomplish this passage, aged and abnormal red cells, such as spherocytes and sickle cells, remain behind to be ingested by the macrophages lining the cords. The Fc receptors on splenic macrophages also bind to IgG antibody-coated erythrocytes or platelets, which are mainly cleared by the spleen.

The spleen is also critical for clearing circulating bacteria. The amorphous polysaccharide coat of encapsulated bacteria greatly impairs their clearance in the absence of antibody, and only the spleen's highly efficient phagocytic cords can effectively clear these bacteria. The splenic white pulp processes these intravenous antigens and produces antibody that, during subsequent exposures, allows for efficient clearance by the rest of the MPS.

The splenic cords are uniquely capable of removing erythrocytic inclusions, such as nuclear remnants (ie, Howell-Jolly bodies) or precipitated globin (ie, Heinz bodies), without destroying the cell. The spleen also serves as a reservoir for platelets and produces blood components (extramedullary hematopoiesis) if the bone marrow is unable to meet demands.

Frequency

United States

A 1- to 2-cm splenic tip is palpable in 30% of full-term neonates and in as many as 10% of healthy children. Approximately 3% of healthy college freshmen have palpable spleens. Initial and follow-up studies confirm that this finding is true and that these college freshmen are not at high risk for subsequent serious disease (McIntyre, 1967; Ebaugh, 1979; Arkles, 1986).

International

Malaria, schistosomiasis, and other infections in endemic areas are frequent causes of splenomegaly.

Mortality/Morbidity

• Children with splenomegaly are at increased risk of splenic injury. The American Academy of Pediatrics Council on Sports Medicine and Fitness has recommended that children with acute splenomegaly restrict their participation in contact sports. The logic of the recommendation is that the spleen, which is exposed below the protection of the rib cage, is susceptible to trauma, and acute splenomegaly secondary to infectious mononucleosis is remarkably at risk for rupture.
• Even with large spleens, disorders associated with chronic splenomegaly reduce splenic friability and the risk of rupture. Therefore, restrictions on physical activity are made on a case-by-case basis, and factors such as the degree of trauma and the amount of supervision involved should be taken into account when restrictions are considered.

Race

Specific causes of splenomegaly are most common in certain racial groups. Examples are splenic sequestration as a complication of sickle cell disease in patients of African or Mediterranean ancestry and noncirrhotic portal fibrosis in patients of Iranian, South Asian, or Japanese ancestry.

Age

The potential etiologies of splenomegaly vary with age. For example, splenic sequestration in sickle cell disease occurs early in life, before the splenic involution that ultimately occurs in most patients with sickle cell disease. Noncirrhotic portal fibrosis occurs in older children and young adults.

CLINICAL

Section 3 of 10  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• References

History

Despite the extensive differential diagnosis, careful history taking and physical examination, along with a CBC determination and liver function tests, often help in narrowing the list of possible causes. The history should include attention to the following important areas, as listed below.

• Chief symptoms
• • Acute or chronic nature
  • Painful or asymptomatic manifestation
  • Ingestion of hepatotoxic agents resulting in hepatitis or portal hypertension
  • Abdominal trauma that may cause splenic hematoma
  • Acute illness such as hepatitis, mononucleosis, or malaria
  • Diarrhea (eg, due to salmonellosis or inflammatory bowel disease)
  • Bone pain, fever, malaise, lethargy, or bruising (eg, associated with leukemia)
  • Weight loss, fevers, night sweats (eg, associated with Hodgkin disease)
• Medical history
• • Complicated neonatal period (eg, sepsis, hypotension)
  • Umbilical catheter thrombosis
  • Hyperbilirubinemia, anemia (eg, due to hereditary spherocytosis or hemolysis)
  • Heart disease (eg, congestive heart failure)
  • Past surgeries (eg, leading to infection, thrombosis, portal hypertension)
  • Transfusions (eg, resulting in hepatitis)
  • Abdominal trauma (possibly resulting in splenic pseudocyst)
  • Travel (possible presence of malaria, leishmaniasis, schistosomiasis, or trypanosomiasis)
  • Sexual behavior (possible presence of hepatitis, cytomegalovirus [CMV], or HIV)
  • Known blood disorder (eg, sickle cell disease, hereditary spherocytosis)
• Family history
• • Anemia, cholecystectomy (eg, due to hemolytic anemia–associated gallstones)
  • Splenectomy (eg, due to hemolytic anemia)
  • Mediterranean ethnicity (increased incidence of thalassemia and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase [G6PD] deficiency)
  • African ethnicity (increased incidence of sickle cell anemia, G-6-PD deficiency, and hereditary pyropoikilocytosis)
  • Ashkenazi Jewish ethnicity (increased incidence of Gaucher disease, and Niemann-Pick disease)
  • Northern European ethnicity (increased incidence of pyruvate kinase deficiency and hereditary spherocytosis)
  • Asian ethnicity (increased incidence of G6PD)
  • South Asian ethnicity (increased incidence of portal hypertension secondary to noncirrhotic portal fibrosis)

Physical

The child should be examined in the supine or right lateral decubitus position. The spleen is best palpated with the clinician kneeling on the child's right side and by palpating the left upper quadrant of the abdomen with the right hand.

Palpation should start just above the pubis and move toward the left upper quadrant to find the medial border of the spleen. The examiner usually palpates the spleen by feeling its inferolateral margins. If the enlarged tip of the spleen is below the examiner's hands, he or she often misses it. Likewise, light pressure should be used with small children, because the spleen can easily be pushed out of the way without the clinician feeling its edge.

Percussion over the left lateral areas of the lower ribs may reveal splenomegaly that is not evident on palpation. This procedure is particularly helpful in a crying child in whom splenic palpation is difficult. A normal-sized liver and spleen may also become palpable if a pulmonary pathology is causing hyperinflation of the lungs (pseudosplenomegaly). The spleen is occasionally confused with the left lobe of the liver or with a tumor in the left upper quadrant (eg, Wilms tumor, neuroblastoma). The characteristic downward movement of the spleen with inspiration, and its relatively flat surface, can help in differentiating it from other masses of the left upper quadrant.

Important features on physical examination are listed below.

• General findings - Failure to thrive (eg, in the presence of malignancy, chronic hemolysis, chronic infection, metabolic disease, liver disease, or inflammatory disease)
• Dermal findings
• • Pallor (eg, due to anemia, which may indicate hemolysis, bone marrow infiltration, or hypersplenism)
  • Petechiae, purpura (eg, due to thrombocytopenia, which may indicate bone marrow failure, autoimmune disorder, or hypersplenism)
  • Jaundice (eg, due to hemolytic anemia or liver disease)
  • Itching, pruritus (eg, due to liver dysfunction)
  • Rashes (eg, due to acute and chronic infections, systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, infective endocarditis, histiocytoses, or hemangiomata)
  • Eczema (eg, due to Langerhans cell histiocytosis or immunodeficiency)
• Head, eyes, ears, nose, and throat findings
• • Icterus (eg, due to hemolytic anemia or liver dysfunction)
  • Cherry red retinal spots, cloudy corneas (eg, due to lipid storage diseases)
• Respiratory and cardiovascular findings
• • Dyspnea, fatigue (eg, due to anemia or congestive heart failure)
  • New murmur (eg, due to infective endocarditis)
• GI findings
• • Abdominal tenderness (eg, due to gallstones, hepatitis, trauma, or acute splenomegaly)
  • Distention, prominent abdominal veins, ascites (eg, due to liver disease)
  • Enlarged or shrunken liver with a firm, knobby texture
• Musculoskeletal findings
• • Joint pain (eg, due to systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, or autoimmune inflammatory diseases)
  • Poor bone growth (eg, due to storage diseases or osteopetrosis)
  • Bone pain (eg, due to leukemia or Gaucher disease)
• Neurologic findings
• • Poor vision (eg, due to osteopetrosis)
  • Uveitis, iritis (eg, due to sarcoidosis or rheumatoid arthritis)
  • Loss of developmental milestones (eg, due to storage diseases, chronic infection, or immunodeficiency)

Causes

Despite the numerous causes of splenomegaly (see Differentials), the spleen is rarely the primary site of disease.

• The most common mechanism of splenomegaly in children is hyperplasia of the MPS, which can be categorized as excessive antigenic stimulation (ie, infection), disorders of immunoregulation (ie, autoimmune disorders), or excessive destruction of abnormal blood cells (ie, hemolysis).
• • Excessive antigenic stimulation due to infection is the cause of most cases of splenomegaly in children. Viral infections are the most frequent culprits, and the associated splenomegaly is usually transient and only mild to moderate in severity. Although Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) and CMV are well known causes of splenomegaly, the most typical viral illnesses of childhood are the most frequent causes.
  • Other common infectious etiologies include bacterial, protozoal, and fungal infections. In endemic areas, malaria and schistosomiasis are routine causes of splenomegaly. Concomitant generalized lymphadenopathy is common in many of these infectious etiologies.
  • Inflammation due to collagen vascular diseases, such as juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, and increased destruction of blood cells from hemolytic anemias are relatively uncommon, but clinically significant, causes of splenomegaly.
  • Splenomegaly can be a presenting sign of neoplasia. One half of children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia have splenomegaly. Splenomegaly is also a frequent finding in non-Hodgkin lymphoma, Hodgkin disease, and acute or chronic myeloblastic leukemia. Metastatic involvement of the spleen, which is uncommon in children, is most often caused by neuroblastoma. Histiocytes can infiltrate the spleen; in children, a condition in children, Langerhans cell histiocytosis is usually the cause of this condition.
  • Obstructed venous blood flow of intrahepatic or extrahepatic etiology can cause splenomegaly. The most common causes include portal vein thrombosis, hepatic cirrhosis, and congestive heart failure. Children with extrahepatic portal venous obstruction, such as cavernous transformation, often present with splenomegaly as the primary manifestation of their disease.
  • Many storage diseases result in splenomegaly. In Gaucher or Niemann-Pick disease, splenomegaly is often the first clinical manifestation. Splenomegaly is the result of the accumulation of abnormal lipids in splenic macrophages.
  • After trauma, palpable subcapsular hematomas may develop in the spleen, which may eventually develop into clinically palpable pseudocysts. Patients with congenital splenic cysts usually present with asymptomatic splenomegaly.
  • Although normally found only during the first 6 months of life, extramedullary hematopoiesis may occur in diseases associated with intense demand on the bone marrow for cell production. Thalassemia major, osteopetrosis, and idiopathic myelofibrosis are examples of this rare cause of splenomegaly.
• Hypersplenism is a clinical syndrome in which cytopenias result from excessive splenic function, which occurs as the spleen and its MPS tissues enlarge. The pathologic action of the spleen, ie, the reduction of circulating blood elements, has been attributed to 4 possible mechanisms: excessive splenic phagocytic activity, splenic production of an antibody that results in the destruction of hematopoietic cells, overactivity of splenic function, and sequestration.
• • As the spleen enlarges, it can sequester erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets, resulting in mild-to-moderate decreases in some or all of these cell lines. Severe reductions in cell counts are unusual and should prompt a search for alternative etiologies.
  • Venous obstruction is the most common cause of hypersplenism. Any increase in portal pressure is reflected in the splenic venous sinuses. This impairs blood flow out of the cords and results in the sequestration of blood cells and hypersplenism. Hypersplenism in children is most frequently caused by portal hypertension. Extrahepatic venous obstruction from portal vein thrombosis is the most common cause of increased portal pressures. In extrahepatic venous obstruction, hepatic function is normal. Intrahepatic venous obstruction is usually due to cirrhosis.
  • Portal hypertension usually increases flow through minor collateral vessels between the portal circulation and the systemic circulation. Portal hypertension can result in recognizable dilatation of the superficial abdominal veins and esophageal varices. Patients with these varices may present with sudden and catastrophic GI hemorrhage.
• Splenic sequestration crisis is a specific form of acute hypersplenism in young children with sickle cell anemia.
• • Children with splenic sequestration can develop rapid and massive splenic enlargement with the consumption of large volumes of erythrocytes. They present with sudden weakness, dyspnea, and left-sided abdominal pain in addition to splenomegaly.
  • Splenic sequestration is an emergency. Death from hypovolemia can result rapidly.
  • Treatment consists of fluids and erythrocyte transfusions. To prevent recurrences, splenectomy may be indicated. In most patients with sickle cell disease, the spleen eventually involutes, and sequestration is no longer possible.

DIFFERENTIALS

Section 4 of 10  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• References

Other Problems to be Considered

Hepatitic cirrhosis
Portal hypertension
Cavernous transformation of the portal vein
Chronic myelocytic leukemia
Hereditary spherocytosis
Autoimmune hemolytic anemia
Chediak-Higashi syndrome
Immunodeficiency disorders
Niemann-Pick disease
Lipid storage diseases
Hematomas
Pseudocysts

WORKUP

Section 5 of 10  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• References

Lab Studies

• Splenomegaly is usually the result of systemic disease and not the result of primary splenic disease. Therefore, diagnostic studies are not directed at the spleen itself. Instead, they are oriented at diagnosing disease states that result in splenomegaly. The most useful laboratory tests are the CBC with differential, peripheral blood smears, and liver function tests.
• The CBC may be revealing.
• • Pancytopenia may be present because of bone marrow infiltration.
  • The WBC count may reveal atypical lymphocytes (eg, due to viral infections), blasts (eg, in leukemia), neutropenia, or neutrophilia (eg, due to infection or leukemia).
  • Hemoglobin concentrations, RBC smears, and reticulocyte counts may demonstrate anemia, abnormal erythrocyte morphology, reticulocytosis (eg, due to hemolysis), or malarial parasites.
  • The platelet count may indicate thrombocytopenia due to decreased production (eg, due to bone marrow infiltration), increased destruction (eg, due to immunologic causes, drug reactions, or viral infections), or sequestration or hypersplenism.
• Liver function tests may demonstrate the following abnormal values:
• • Hypoalbuminemia, prolonged prothrombin time, indirect and direct hyperbilirubinemia (eg, due to liver dysfunction)
  • Isolated indirect hyperbilirubinemia (eg, due to hemolysis)
  • Elevated aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels (eg, due to liver damage)
  • Elevated gamma glutamyltransferase (GGT) and alkaline phosphatase levels (eg, due to biliary obstruction)
• Obtain an antinuclear antibody titer to screen for systemic lupus erythematosus.
• Measure immunoglobulin levels, neutrophil function, and T-cell subclasses (eg, due to immunodeficiency).
• Obtain viral-antibody titers to detect EBV, CMV, Toxoplasma gondii, and HIV.
• Cultures may reveal bacterial, fungal, or other infections.
• Examine the bone marrow to screen for leukemia, lymphoma, storage diseases, and disseminated fungal or mycobacteria infections.

Imaging Studies

• A sonogram can confirm the presence of the enlarged spleen or space-occupying lesions (eg, cyst, abscess), provide accurate dimensions, and help in distinguishing between splenic enlargement and other causes of a left subchondral mass (eg, kidney). Collateral blood vessels develop secondary to portal hypertension, and reversal of portal vein blood flow direction may be visualized with Doppler ultrasonography.
• CT scanning and MRI of the left upper quadrant can help in further clarifying abnormalities in size and shape and in defining parenchymal pathology.
• Radioisotopic scanning with a technetium-99m sulfur colloid (spleen scan) can provide functional information about the spleen that other radiologic studies do not provide.

Histologic Findings

Biopsy of the spleen may be performed. However, the results are of limited value in common diagnoses, and the procedure is associated with a notable risk. The diagnosis is occasionally recognized after splenectomy. Examples of disease that might be examined with biopsy are infiltrative diseases, such as Gaucher disease, Niemann-Pick disease, amyloidosis, Tangier disease, and glycogen storage diseases. Other diseases that may be diagnosed with splenic tissue are Langerhans cell histiocytosis, sarcoidosis, systemic lupus erythematosus, and Hodgkin disease. For Hodgkin disease, biopsy samples were often obtained in the past with staging laparotomy, but this is no longer performed.

TREATMENT

Section 6 of 10  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• References

Medical Care

Because splenomegaly is usually the result of an underlying systemic disease, the primary goal is treatment of the underlying disease. In certain circumstances, splenectomy may be the therapy of choice for symptoms or complications caused by the enlarged organ. However, because of the risk of overwhelming sepsis in asplenic children, the risks and benefits must be weighed when splenectomy is being considered.

• The new conjugated and the older polyvalent pneumococcal vaccines and the Haemophilus influenzae vaccine should be administered to all asplenic children and to those about to undergo splenectomy. The polyvalent pneumococcal vaccine is effective only if the patient is aged 2 years or older. Meningococcal vaccine is often administered to these patients as well. To maximize antibody formation, vaccines should be administered at least 10 days before splenectomy.
• Daily penicillin is recommended to prevent pneumococcal septicemia in asplenic children younger than 5 years. Antibiotic prophylaxis is often administered for several years after splenectomy in patients older than 5 years, but the role of prophylaxis in these children is less well documented than it is in others.
• In patients with homozygous sickle cell anemia or sickle beta-zero thalassemia, oral penicillin prophylaxis should be started when the diagnosis is established. This therapy should be administered until at least age 5 years. The role of penicillin prophylaxis in patients with hemoglobin SC disease is controversial. Patients with sickle beta+ thalassemia do not appear to need penicillin prophylaxis.
• Febrile illnesses in asplenic children should be approached as potentially life-threatening events and evaluated thoroughly, with a low threshold for treatment with intravenous antibiotics that cover Streptococcus pneumoniae and H influenzae. The increasing prevalence of drug-resistant S pneumoniae and the decreasing incidence of H influenzae infections are complicating factors in determining the optimal choice of antibiotics.

Surgical Care

Splenic trauma is the most common indication for splenectomy, though attempts at splenic preservation are increasingly important. Nonsurgical management for splenic trauma has success rates of 52-98%, with failure usually occurring in the first 96 hours. Splenic cysts, tumors, and vascular lesions may also require surgical removal. Whenever possible, splenic tissue is preserved to decrease the risk of septicemia, but total splenectomy is occasionally necessary.

• Splenectomy can cure hypersplenism but is not usually indicated because the secondary cytopenias rarely cause serious problems. However, in patients with portal hypertension, vascular shunts may be necessary to prevent esophageal variceal bleeding.
• Splenectomy may be helpful in improving cytopenias in several medical conditions, including congenital anemias (eg, hereditary spherocytosis, elliptocytosis) and autoimmune disorders (eg, immune thrombocytopenic purpura, autoimmune hemolytic anemia, hypersplenism). In thalassemia major, splenectomy decreases the transfusion requirements caused by hypersplenism.
• In Gaucher disease, splenectomy may be necessary when the mechanical strain of the enlarged spleen requires intervention.
• Splenectomy may be indicated in children with sickle cell anemia and a history of splenic sequestration crisis in order to prevent recurrences of the crisis.
• As part of exploratory laparotomy, splenectomy was once an important component of staging of Hodgkin disease. This procedure is now infrequently used because of improvements in imaging modalities, the high risk of postsplenectomy sepsis, and the increased use of chemotherapy in patients, which allows treatment decisions to be made on the basis of radiologic evaluation alone. Furthermore, data suggest that splenectomy increases the risk of second malignancy in patients treated for Hodgkin disease.

Consultations

A pediatric hematologist and/or oncologist is the usual consultant when the cause of splenomegaly is not obvious or when a primary hematologic or oncologic disorder is suspected.

Activity

Splenic enlargement below the protection of the rib cage exposes the spleen to possible trauma. Children with splenomegaly due to acute viral illness, particularly infectious mononucleosis, demonstrate great fragility of the spleen and are at risk of rupture even with modest degrees of splenomegaly. Therefore, the American Academy of Pediatrics has listed acute splenomegaly as a reason to avoid contact sports. Viral-related splenomegaly usually resolves over a few weeks, rarely lasting longer than 2 months. The American Academy of Pediatrics recognizes that many children in this situation can be allowed to participate in sports, and it also recommends that patients with chronic splenomegaly be individually assessed before they participate in collision, contact, or limited-contact sports.

MEDICATION

Section 7 of 10  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• References

The choice of therapy depends on the specific etiology of the splenomegaly.

Drug Category: Vaccines

Active immunization increases resistance to infection. Vaccines consist of microorganisms or cellular components, which act as antigens. Administration of the vaccine stimulates the production of antibodies with specific protective properties.

With the increased problem of penicillin resistance in S pneumoniae, prevention by using the conjugated pneumococcal vaccine in children or by using the unconjugated 23-valent pneumococcal vaccine in adults is mandatory. Likewise, immunizations with the conjugated H influenzae type B and meningococcal A and C vaccines are essential. Vaccines are administered at least 10 days before splenectomy.

Drug Category: Antibiotics

Daily antibiotic prophylaxis with penicillin is recommended to prevent pneumococcal septicemia.

FOLLOW-UP

Section 8 of 10  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• References

Further Inpatient Care

• Further care depends on the specific etiology of the splenomegaly and rarely on the splenomegaly itself.
• An exception to the statement above is the development of hypersplenism, but the resulting anemia, leukopenia, and/or thrombocytopenia are usually not severe enough to cause serious problems, particularly in children.

Complications

• The major complication of splenectomy is overwhelming sepsis with encapsulated bacteria (eg, S pneumoniae, H influenzae, N meningitidis).
• The overall risk of sepsis in asplenic patients is approximately 2%, it but varies depending on the patient's age and underlying diseases. The mortality rate from septicemia after trauma is 50 times greater in children who undergo splenectomy and 350 times greater in children with sickle cell disease compared with children with a spleen. The risk of sepsis is increased 2-fold in children younger than 4 years, and the rate of sepsis is as high as 30% in the first year of life. For this reason, when possible, splenectomy is often delayed in young children. The frequency of sepsis is highest in the first 5 years after splenectomy.
• The mortality rate from sepsis is approximately 30-50%. Therefore, prevention of sepsis is crucial for asplenic patients.

Prognosis

• The prognosis depends on the specific etiology of the splenomegaly.

Patient Education

• Risks of traumatic rupture of a large and/or fragile spleen must be discussed.
• Other education depends on identifying the specific etiology of the splenomegaly.

MISCELLANEOUS

Section 9 of 10  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• References

Medical/Legal Pitfalls

• Recommended restrictions on physical activity for children with acute splenomegaly need to be enforced, even for those with relatively modest splenomegaly because patients with mononucleosis have friable spleens that may rupture, with catastrophic effect.
• When patients have chronic splenomegaly, follow the AAP guidelines. Also assess the degree of splenomegaly, its underlying cause, and the involvement of the patient's family and others who provide supervision before approving the patient's participation in contact or collision sports.

REFERENCES

Section 10 of 10

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• References

• AAP. Immunocompromised children. In: Pickering LK, ed. Red Book: 2003 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases, 26th ed. Elk Grove Village, IL:. American Academy of Pediatrics;2003:69-81.
• AAP. Medical conditions affecting sports participation. Pediatrics. May 2001;107(5):1205-9. [Medline].
• Ancliff P, Hann I. Splenomegaly. In: Sills RH ed. Practical Algorithms in Pediatric Hematology and Oncology. Basel, Switzerland:. Karger;2003:50-1.
• Arkles LB, Gill GD, Molan MP. A palpable spleen is not necessarily enlarged or pathological. Med J Aust. Jul 7 1986;145(1):15-7. [Medline].
• Castagnola E, Fioredda F. Prevention of life-threatening infections due to encapsulated bacteria in children with hyposplenia or asplenia: a brief review of current recommendations for practical purposes. Eur J Haematol. Nov 2003;71(5):319-26. [Medline].
• Ebaugh FG, McIntyre OR. Palpable spleens: ten-year follow-up. Ann Intern Med. Jan 1979;90(1):130-1. [Medline].
• Goodman J, Newman MI, Chapman WC. Disorders of the spleen. In: Greer JP, Foerster J, Lukens J, et al, eds. Wintrobe's Clinical Hematology. 11th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins;2004:1893-909.
• Lane PA. The spleen in children. Curr Opin Pediatr. Feb 1995;7(1):36-41. [Medline].
• Ludlam CA. Splenomegaly. In: Fleming P, Ellis H, Bouchier I, eds. French's Index of Differential Diagnosis, An Arnold Publication. 13th ed. Oxford, England:. Butterworth-Heinemann;1996:615-6.
• McIntyre OR, Ebaugh FG. Palpable spleens in college freshmen. Ann Intern Med. Feb 1967;66(2):301-6. [Medline].
• Mebius RE, Kraal G. Structure and function of the spleen. Nat Rev Immunol. Aug 2005;5(8):606-16. [Medline].
• Pearson HA. The spleen and disturbances of splenic function. In: Nathan D, Orkin S, Lampert R, eds. Nathan and Oski's Hematology of Infancy and Childhood. 5th ed. Philadelphia, Pa:. WB Saunders;1997:1051.
• Pochedly C, Sills RH, Schwartz AD, eds. Disorders of the Spleen: Pathophysiology and Management. New York: Marcel Dekker;1989.
• Schuchter LM. Approach to the Patient with Splenomegaly In: Kelly WN, ed. Textbook of Internal Medicine. Philadelphia, Pa:. JB Lippincott;1997:1263-7.
• Shurin SB. Splenomegaly. In: Kliegman R, Nieder M, Super D, et al, eds. Practical Strategies in Pediatric Diagnosis and Therapy. Philadelphia, Pa:. WB Saunders;1996:352-9.
• Sills RH. Splenic function: physiology and splenic hypofunction. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol. 1987;7(1):1-36. [Medline].
• Tunnessen WW Jr. Splenomegaly In: Roberts K, Tunnessen W, eds. Signs and Symptoms in Pediatrics. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, Pa:. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins;1999:475-83.

Article Last Updated: Dec 15, 2006