AUTHOR AND EDITOR INFORMATION

Section 1 of 9  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• References

INTRODUCTION

Section 2 of 9  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• References

Background

Childhood habits appear in many different forms. Many people engage in some degree of habitlike behavior in their lifetime. For example, habits can range from seemingly benign behaviors, such as nail biting or foot tapping, to more noticeable physically damaging behaviors, such as teeth grinding (bruxism) and hair pulling. Habit disorders, now subsumed under the diagnostic term stereotypic movement disorder, consist of repetitive, seemingly driven, and nonfunctional motor behaviors that interfere with normal activities or that result in bodily injury. Fortunately, many childhood habits are benign, they are considered a normal part of development, they do not meet the criteria for a disorder, and they typically remit untreated.

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV), formerly used the term stereotypy/habit disorder and now uses the term stereotypic movement disorder to designate repetitive habit behaviors that cause impairment to the child. This review focuses on a number of common childhood behaviors, including thumb sucking, nail biting, nose picking, breath holding, bruxism, head banging, and rocking and/or rhythmic movements. In mild forms, some of these behaviors do not interfere with normal daily activities and, therefore, do not constitute psychiatric disorders. However, mild forms of these behaviors can progress to cause functional impairment or physical and/or psychological sequelae or stigmatization. When functional impairment is substantial, the diagnosis of stereotypic movement disorder should be considered.

The differential diagnosis of stereotypic movement disorder requires the clinician to rule out a number of other psychiatric conditions in which repetitive behaviors are core features. Examples include obsessive-compulsive disorder, trichotillomania, vocal and motor tics, and Tourette disorder. When these disorders best account for symptoms, stereotypic movement disorder is not diagnosed.

Some childhood habits remain unnoticed and can persist untreated, even when they interfere with the child's optimal functioning. Childhood habits can result in negative social interactions and avoidance by peers and family members. Some repetitive behaviors can cause damage. For example, teeth grinding (bruxism) can result in tooth damage. Occasional hair pulling can result in hair loss or evolve into the more severe disorder, trichotillomania. However, for most children who are otherwise developing normally, few habits result in permanent physical damage to the child. In some cases, treating a childhood habit before clearcut dysfunction arises may prevent serious psychopathology and social dysfunction. Much of what is known about childhood habits derives from the literature about common habit behaviors in adults.

Pathophysiology

The pathophysiology of specific habits varies greatly with respect to the topography and frequency of the particular habit behavior.

Thumb sucking: Thumb sucking is an oral habit that involves mouthing of the thumb. Other fingers or the hand may also be involved.

Nail biting: Nail biting consists of biting on or chewing the nails of the hand.

Nose picking: Nose picking is the insertion of a finger into a nostril and may involve the removal of nasal discharge (ie, snot, "boogers"). Older children and adults are most likely to pick their nose in private, whereas young children may commonly do this in public view.

Bruxism: Bruxism is the forcible gnashing, grinding, clicking, or clenching of teeth. Nocturnal bruxism occurs during sleep, and the child is usually unaware of the problem. Episodes are typically brief, lasting 8-9 seconds, with audible grinding noises. Diurnal (daytime) bruxism is primarily associated with clenching of the teeth and generally does not produce audible noises. Diurnal bruxism is related to other oral habits, such as nail biting or lip chewing.

Breath-holding spells: A breath-holding spell is a paroxysmal event in which a child stops breathing at end-expiration after crying, typically because of pain or anger. The crying may be brief or prolonged. Breath-holding spells are classified as simple, cyanotic, or pallid. A simple breath-holding spell results when the child becomes apneic (cyanotic or pale) but then takes a deep breath. Spells with loss of consciousness and muscle tone are classified by the child's color during the event. Cyanotic spells typically have an emotional precipitant (eg, anger, frustration), and with breath holding, the child progresses from cyanotic to apneic. The child may then become limp and lose consciousness.

The spell typically lasts less than 1 minute. If a seizure occurs, the results from an electroencephalograph (EEG) obtained during rest or sleep are normal. Pallid spells are generally observed in response to pain, and the child quickly becomes apneic and pale. An enhanced vagal response has been postulated to be a precursor tobradycardia or asystole. Seizures rarely result.

Head banging: Head banging is the rhythmic hitting of the head (usually the frontal or parietal region) against a solid surface. In children who are developmentally normal, it usually lasts less than 15 minutes but can last hours. A high frequency of up to 60-80 hits per minute is common. It can be associated with temper tantrums, tension, or stress. Head banging can also develop as a sleep ritual if the head banging occurs as the child falls asleep.

Body rocking or rhythmic movements: Body rocking usually involves a forward and backward rhythmic swaying of the trunk at the hips, generally from a sitting or quadruped position. The intensity may be gentle, or it may be forceful enough to move the child's crib or bed. This behavior typically occurs when children are alone in their cribs or beds. Most episodes last less than 15 minutes but may persist up to 30 minutes. Rhythmic or stereotypic behaviors include repetitive nonfunctional motor movements, such as hand flapping or shaking, self-biting, or hitting one's own body.

Frequency

United States

Accurate prevalence rates of childhood habits are extremely difficult to estimate because of the various classes of habits and the differing topographies of a child's presenting habit. The prevalence rates of habit disorders are at best unclear, and some remain unknown among children. Future studies will hopefully reveal a more accurate picture of the number of children with the various childhood habit disorders. Estimates from the literature for various types of common habit disorders appear below.

Thumb sucking: This is common in infancy and in as many as 25-50% of 2-year-old children. However, it is observed in only 15-20% of 5- to 6-year-old children.

Nail biting: This is mainly observed from preschool age to adolescence; the prevalence is as high as 45%-60%.

Nose picking: Few studies have been performed. However, in 1 survey, as many as 91% of adults reported nose picking.

Breath-holding spells: These are common in up to 4-5% of children younger than 8 years.

Bruxism: This is observed in 5-30% of children.

Head banging: This can occur in 3-19% of developmentally normal children younger than 3 years. It is more frequently observed in children with autism or developmental delay and in those living in institutional environments.

Body rocking and rhythmic movements: These occur in most infants aged 6-12 months. The behavior is most often observed in children with developmental disabilities or sensory impairments; however, it persists beyond age 2 years in 3% of children with normal development.

The age of onset and resolution of habit behaviors may be delayed in children with developmental disabilities.

Stereotypies are observed in 40-60% of individuals who are institutionalized and have profound mental retardation, 8-10% of individuals who live in the community and have moderate mental retardation, and up to 20% of individuals who live in the community and have mental retardation and autism. Self-injury is less common; it is observed in 10-20% of individuals who are institutionalized and have mental retardation, 1-3% of individuals who live in the community and have moderate mental retardation, and up to 5% of individuals who live in the community and have mental retardation and autism.

Mortality/Morbidity

Because childhood habits take various forms, a wide range of mortality and morbidity profiles exist. Mortality is extremely rare.

• All habits have the potential to produce social stigmatization and distress depending on the environmental context in which they occur.
• Although the range of physical sequelae varies greatly, serious medical complications are rare.
• Some habit disorders may not directly cause the child observable physical damage. Instead, they may result in impairment in social functioning. Stigmatization resulting from the habit can cause the child considerable distress, humiliation, social rejection, academic problems, feelings of shame and guilt, discomfort in social activities, and depression or anxiety.

Sex

Just as the overall prevalence rates of childhood habits are unknown, data on sex-based differences in prevalence are limited at best. In cases of self-injurious behavior, head banging is believed to occur 3 times more frequently in male individuals than in female individuals. Self-biting may be more prevalent in female individuals than in male individuals.

• Thumb sucking: This is suspected to occur slightly more often in girls than in boys.
• Nail biting: This tends to be more common in females than in males.
• Nose picking: Sex-based differences in nose picking are unknown.
• Bruxism: When the types of bruxism are separated into clenching and grinding, more females than males grind their teeth, but the number of males and females who engage in teeth clenching are equal. In addition, resulting dysfunction of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) may be more common among female adolescents than male adolescents.
• Breath-holding spells: The occurrence among boys and girls is equal.
• Head banging: This occurs 3 times more often in boys than in girls.
• Rocking and rhythmic movements: Sex-based differences in rocking and rhythmic movements are unknown.

Age

The age at which specific habits originate, peak, and remit is related to the individual habit behavior.

• Thumb sucking: This is observed in utero as early as 29 weeks' gestation. It is common in infancy and is observed in as many as 25-50% of children aged 2 years. Rates of thumb sucking declines with increasing age; most children spontaneously stop at about 4 years of age. It is observed in only 15-20% of children aged 5-6 years.
• Nail biting: Onset in children younger than 4 years is rare. Rates as high as 45-60% are observed in preschool age to adolescence.
• Nose picking: This is common in adults and children.
• Bruxism: Bruxism is observed in 5-20% of children. The frequency increases during childhood, peaking at 7-10 years of age and decreasing after that. It is common in children and adults.
• Breath-holding spells: These are reported to occur in 4-5% of the pediatric population, with a peak in frequency at 2-3 years. Breath-holding spells may begin as early as infancy. Approximately 80-90% of preschoolers with breath-holding spells stop by age 6 years.
• Head banging: This can occur in 3-19% of developmentally normal children younger than 3 years. It peaks at the ages of 18 months to 2 years, and rates rapidly decline after that. Head banging continues in 1-3% of children older than 3 years. The behavior can recur at 5-6 years of age. Head banging is more frequently observed in children with autism or developmental delay or in those living in an institutional environment.
• Body rocking and rhythmic movements: These occur in most infants aged 6-12 months. The prevalence peaks in children aged 6-18 months and rapidly declines after that. The behavior persists beyond age 2 years in 3% of children with normal development. Body rocking and rhythmic movements are most often observed in children with developmental disabilities or sensory impairments and may be associated with a lack of environmental stimulation.

CLINICAL

Section 3 of 9  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• References

History

The history consists of reports of observed specific behaviors associated with the individual habit. Intensity, severity, and duration may be variable. Habit behaviors may be present for a long time before consultation is sought. Complaints at the time of presentation for evaluation and/or treatment may be either physical or psychological sequelae of the habit (see Pathophysiology).

Physical

Most childhood habits are benign and have no specific observable physical signs. However, when physical signs are present, they are typically nonpathologic and often previously unnoticed. In severe cases, physical evidence of a habit may be related to an associated injury or physical sequelae of the specific behavior the child engages in.

• Thumb sucking: Thumb and digit sucking continued beyond age 4-5 years can result in dental problems, especially malocclusion, mucosal trauma, decreased alveolar bone growth, and abnormal growth of facial bones. These children also have an increased risk of accidental ingestions and pica. Thumb callous and skin breakdown may occur. Deformities of the fingers and thumbs and paronychia occur relatively infrequently.
• Nail biting: This can be associated with extremely short fingernails, paronychia, oral herpes, herpetic whitlow, damaged dentition, apical root resorption, fractures to the incisors, and gingivitis.
• Nose picking: Epistaxis is the most common complication. In rare cases, complications include perforation of the nasal septum or infection.
• Bruxism: This can result in chronic dental pain, dental fractures, wearing down of dental enamel, thermal hypersensitivity of the teeth, hypermobility of the teeth, injury to the periodontium, and pulpitis. Dysfunction of the temporomandibular joint and recurrent headaches may also occur.
• Breath-holding spells: Injury may result from a fall secondary to loss of consciousness and muscle tone. In some cases, a child may have a seizure secondary to the breath holding.
• Head banging: Physical or intracranial injuries rarely result, even with forceful head banging. Head banging may cause callus formation, abrasions, and contusions at the site of the banging. Risk for injury is increased in children with bleeding disorders. Skull fractures, eye injuries, and dental injuries have rarely been reported.
• Body rocking and rhythmic movements: In rare cases, self-injurious rhythmic movements may occur and result in various associated physical injuries.

Causes

The origins of most habit disorders are not well established or understood.

Although the pathophysiology of habit disorders varies greatly with respect to the topography and frequency of the particular habit behavior, associated biological and/or environmental etiologic factors may exist. Some habit behaviors emerge from normal repetitive behaviors in infancy (eg, hand and thumb sucking) and are believed to represent intrinsic movement patterns generated by the developing nervous system. Certain behaviors, such as nose picking, which may initially arise as a response to dry nasal membranes and nasal irritation or itching, can later develop into a cycle that is difficult to break.

Some behaviors may start spontaneously and then be inadvertently reinforced or maintained by other factors, such as attention. Behaviors that produce arousal or modulate self-stimulation may also be influenced by the level of environmental stimulation; for example, some behaviors may be viewed as entertainment for a bored child or as a means of coping with overstimulation.

Repetitive or habitual behaviors may be associated with an underlying condition, such as a sensory impairment or developmental disorder, unrecognized medical or neurologic condition, the side effect of a medication, or a psychiatric disorder. Certain genetic syndromes are associated with repetitive behaviors (eg, skin picking in Prader-Willi syndrome, hand flapping and wringing in Rett syndrome, hand flapping in fragile X syndrome).

Possible etiologies or explanations of specific habit disorders are as follows:

• Thumb sucking is initially a biologically driven reflexive behavior that is often documented in utero and in the young infant. In older infants and toddlers, the behavior is reinforced as a form of self-stimulation or self-comfort and most frequently observed when the child is sleepy, hungry, frustrated, or fatigued. Most children who suck their thumbs past infancy develop the habit before 3-9 months of age. Children who have stopped thumb sucking may resume the behavior after an acute or chronic distressing event, such as an illness, hospitalization, or separation.
• Nose picking occurs in children and adults. Older children and adults are most likely to pick their nose in private, whereas young children commonly do so in public view. The behavior may begin in association with rhinorrhea, nasal irritation, or nasal itching resulting from colds or allergies.
• Breath-holding spells are generally observed in response to anger or pain. In pallid breath-holding spells, an enhanced vagal response has been postulated to be a precursor to bradycardia or asystole.
• Head banging is the rhythmic hitting of the head and can be associated with temper tantrums, tension, or stress. In some children, head banging can also develop as a sleep ritual. Neurologic or psychological precursors are rarely identified. Head banging is most commonly associated with developmental delay or autism. In some cases, the onset of head banging has been associated with teething or otitis media and has been hypothesized to serve a pain-relieving function.

DIFFERENTIALS

Section 4 of 9  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• References

Other Problems to be Considered

Stereotypic movement disorder
Tic disorder
Factitious disorder with predominately physical signs and symptoms
Self-mutilation associated with certain psychotic disorders and personality disorders
Pain
Abuse
Neglect
CNS disease
Seizure disorder
Self-stimulatory behaviors in individuals with hearing impairment or other sensory deficits
Environmentally based sensory deprivation
Neurologically based movement disorder (chorea, dystonic movements, athetosis, myoclonus, hemiballismus, spasms)
Developmentally appropriate self-stimulatory behaviors in young children

TREATMENT

Section 5 of 9  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• References

Medical Care

Treating childhood habits that do not interfere with everyday functioning is often unnecessary because many habits remit spontaneously over time. However, if the habit is causing the child and/or family members distress, social isolation, or physical injury, a therapeutic intervention may be required.

If the physical examination reveals bodily damage from a habit behavior, focus on treating the specific injury and reducing or eliminating the immediate physical harm the child may be inflicting on himself or herself. At this time, consultation with a developmental-behavioral pediatrician, child psychologist, and/or child psychiatrist may be indicated.

Dental occlusal splints are occasionally used in the treatment of oral destructive habits. Splints do not eliminate but do help reduce the frequency of bruxism.

Helmets may be required for children with severe and persistent head banging, particularly those with clinically significant developmental disabilities.

Consultations

Consultation with a developmental-behavioral pediatrician, child psychologist, and/or child psychiatrist may be indicated.

Behavior therapy is the mainstay in the treatment for children with habit behaviors. Effective behavioral therapies for habits include the following:

• Habit reversal: This is the most consistently effective way to treat presenting habits in children because of its brevity, immediacy, efficacy, durability, flexibility, and consistency.
• Relaxation training
• Self-monitoring
• Reinforcement
• Nocturnal biofeedback (bruxism)
• Competing responses
• Use of bitter-tasting substances (nail biting)
• Negative practice
• Use of aversive-tasting substance (thumb sucking)

Activity

Although no specific activity limitations are needed when treating a child with a habit disorder, some situations and contexts may perpetuate habitlike behaviors. Therefore, a functional behavioral assessment by a psychologist can help determine the types of activities that may co-occur with or exacerbate habitlike behaviors.

MEDICATION

Section 6 of 9  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• References

Most common habits in children that require treatment can be substantially improved with behavioral interventions, without the use of medication. However, in some cases, medication in addition to behavioral treatments may be required to attain optimal treatment outcomes. When pharmacotherapy is considered, psychologists and medical physicians, such as child and adolescent psychiatrists or behavioral pediatricians, must work in consultation.

Physicians are advised to be aware of the following information and use appropriate caution when considering treatment with antidepressants in the pediatric population.

In December 2003, the UK Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) issued an advisory that most selective serotonin (5HT) reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are not suitable for use by persons younger than 18 years for treatment of depressive illness. After review, this agency decided that the risks to pediatric patients outweigh the benefits of treatment with SSRIs, except fluoxetine (Prozac), which appears to have a positive risk-benefit ratio in the treatment of depressive illness in patients younger than 18 years.

In October 2003, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued a public health advisory regarding reports of suicidality in pediatric patients being treated with antidepressant medications. This advisory reported suicidality (both ideation and attempts) in clinical trials of various antidepressant drugs in pediatric patients. The FDA has asked that additional studies be performed because suicidality occurred in both treated and untreated patients with major depression and therefore could not be definitively linked to drug treatment.

However, a recent study of more than 65,000 children and adults treated for depression between 1992 and 2002 by the Group Health Cooperative in Seattle found that suicide risk declines, not rises, with the use of antidepressants. This is the largest study to date to address this issue.

Currently, evidence does not exist to associate obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and other anxiety disorders treated with SSRIs with an increased risk of suicide.

Although few drug studies of the many habits and habit disorders in children and adults have been performed, medications commonly used to treat other disorders (eg, tics, trichotillomania, obsessive-compulsive disorder) may also be useful when pharmacotherapy for childhood habit is indicated.

SSRIs and tricyclic antidepressants have shown some efficacy in reducing the frequency and intensity of some repetitive behaviors. SSRIs may be preferred over tricyclic antidepressants because of their milder adverse-effect profiles. Other isolated successes have also been reported with traditional and newer neuroleptics, but their adverse-effect profiles make them second-line medications.

Drug Category: SSRIs

These are antidepressant agents chemically unrelated to the tricyclic, tetracyclic, or other available antidepressants. Inhibits CNS neuronal uptake of 5HT. They may also have a weak effect on norepinephrine and dopamine neuronal reuptake.

SSRIs are greatly preferred over the other classes of antidepressants. Because the adverse-effect profile of SSRIs is less prominent than that of other agents, they promote compliance. SSRIs do not have the risk of cardiac arrhythmia associated with tricyclic antidepressants. The risk of arrhythmia is especially pertinent in overdose, and a suicide risk must always be considered when a child or adolescent with a mood disorder is being treated.

Drug Category: Tricyclic antidepressant agents

These agents are structurally related to the phenothiazine antipsychotic agents and have 3 major pharmacologic actions in varying degrees: inhibition of the amine pump, sedation, and peripheral and central anticholinergic action. These drugs inhibit the reuptake of norepinephrine or 5HT (ie, 5-hydroxytryptamine) at the presynaptic neuron.

FOLLOW-UP

Section 7 of 9  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• References

Further Outpatient Care

• Consult a developmental-behavioral pediatrician, child psychologist, and/or child psychiatrist for further assessment and possible treatment modalities as indicated.

Prognosis

• Most childhood habits that do not involve self-injury are benign and remit without intervention.
• • When a habit persists and interferes with daily functioning, intervention is warranted.
  • The prognosis for reducing and eliminating habit disorders is typically good.
  • Treatment research shows that behavioral intervention can reduce the habit behavior by 90%.
• A child with breath-holding spells does not have an increased risk of seizures but does have an increased risk of syncopal episodes as an adult.
• Data about habit behaviors as markers for increased emotional stress, anxiety, or behavior problems are inconsistent.

Patient Education

• For excellent patient education resources, visit eMedicine's Teeth and Mouth Center. Also, see eMedicine's patient education article Teething.

MISCELLANEOUS

Section 8 of 9  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• References

Special Concerns

• Although habit disorders can affect any child, stereotypic movements and stereotypies are most common among children with mental retardation and other developmental delays. For example, one should be cognizant of a child who has mental retardation or developmental delay and who engages in head banging and other repetitive behaviors.
• Some habitlike behavior is normal for a developing child.
• • For example, approximately one half of all 2-year-old children engage in thumb sucking. However, if this behavior persists through childhood, the likelihood of it becoming a substantial problem may increase with age.
  • Careful observation of normal developmental behaviors should be considered before a child is evaluated for a severe problem.

REFERENCES

Section 9 of 9

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• References

• AAP. Atypical behaviors. In: Wolraich ML, Felice ME, Drotar D, eds. The Classification of Child and Adolescent Mental Diagnoses in Primary Care: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Primary Care (DSM-PC) Child and Adolescent Version. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics;. 1996: 267-75.
• APA. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. 1994.
• Allen KW. Chronic nailbiting: a controlled comparison of competing response and mild aversion treatments. Behav Res Ther. Mar 1996;34(3):269-72. [Medline].
• Blum NJ. Repetitive Bbhaviors. In: Levine MD, Carey WB, Crocker AC, eds. Developmental-Behavioral Pediatrics. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders;. 1999: 430-42.
• Ellingson SA, Miltenberger RG, Stricker JM, et al. Analysis and treatment of finger sucking. J Appl Behav Anal. Spring 2000;33(1):41-52. [Medline].
• Glaros AG, Epkins CC. Habit disorders: bruxism, trichotillomania, and tics. In: Roberts MC, ed. Handbook of Pediatric Psychology, 2nd ed. New York, NY: Guilford;. 1995: 558-74.
• Long ES, Miltenberger RG. A review of behavioral and pharmacological treatments for habit disorders in individuals with mental retardation. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry. Jun 1998;29(2):143-56. [Medline].
• Matthews LH, Leibowitz JM, Matthews JR. Tics, habits, and mannerisms. In: Walker CE, Roberts MC, eds. Handbook of Clinical Child Psychology, 2nd ed. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons;. 1992: 283-302.
• Meyer RG. Practical clinical hypnosis: techniques and applications. In: Scientific Foundations of Clinical Counseling Psychology. New York, NY: Lexington Books/Macmillan;. 1992.
• Miller JM, Singer HS, Bridges DD, Waranch HR. Behavioral therapy for treatment of stereotypic movements in nonautistic children. J Child Neurol. Feb 2006;21(2):119-25. [Medline].
• Peterson AL, Campise RL, Azrin NH. Behavioral and pharmacological treatments for tic and habit disorders: a review. J Dev Behav Pediatr. Dec 1994;15(6):430-41. [Medline].
• Simon GE, Savarino J, Operskalski B, Wang PS. Suicide risk during antidepressant treatment. Am J Psychiatry. Jan 2006;163(1):41-7. [Medline].
• Watson TS, Sterling HE. Habits and tics. In: Watson TS, Gresham FM, eds. Handbook of Child Behavior Therapy. New York, NY: Plenum;. 1998: 431-49.
• Wester WC II. Habits. In: Wester WC II, O'Grady DJ, eds. Clinical Hypnosis with Children. New York, NY: Routledge;. 1991: 85-96.
• Woods DW, Miltenberger RG. A review of habit reversal with childhood habit disorders. Educ Treat Child. 1996;19:197-214.
• Woods DW, Murray LK, Fuqua RW, et al. Comparing the effectiveness of similar and dissimilar competing responses in evaluating the habit reversal treatment for oral-digital habits in children. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry. Dec 1999;30(4):289-300. [Medline].

Article Last Updated: May 3, 2006