AUTHOR AND EDITOR INFORMATION

Section 1 of 11  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• Multimedia
• References

INTRODUCTION

Section 2 of 11  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• Multimedia
• References

Background

Supravalvar mitral ring is a rare congenital heart defect of surgical importance. The condition characterized by an abnormal ridge of connective tissue on the atrial side of the mitral valve. Often circumferential in shape, the supravalvar ring may encroach on the orifice of the mitral valve and may adhere to the leaflets of the valve and restrict their movements. Although a supravalvar mitral ring may allow for normal hemodynamic flow from the left atrium to the left ventricle (LV), it often substantially obstructs mitral-valve inflow. Although it can occur as an isolated defect, supravalvar mitral ring is found in combination with other congenital heart defects in nearly 90% of patients. Awareness of anatomic variations in patients with supravalvar mitral ring and preoperative recognition of the lesion are important to achieve good therapeutic results.

On occasion, supravalvar mitral stenosis can develop as an acquired lesion late after mitral annuloplasty to repair mitral regurgitation.

Pathophysiology

Supravalvar mitral ring is a circumferential ridge or membrane arising from the left atrial wall overlying the mitral valve and frequently attached to the mitral valve. Variable in thickness and extent, the ring ranges from a thin membrane to a thick discrete fibrous ridge. The membranous variety may be difficult to detect because the membrane often adheres to the anterior mitral-valve leaflet while remaining just proximal to the posterior mitral leaflet. Adhesion to the valve may impair opening of the leaflets, and this impairment may be the main mechanism of mitral-valve inflow obstruction in some patients.

In other patients, the ring may be large enough to protrude into the mitral-valve inflow and cause obstruction. The supramitral ring may initially be incomplete and eccentric, allowing for unobstructed flow through the mitral valve. However, turbulence can cause a progressive increase in the supravalvar membrane or ridge, worsening mitral inflow obstruction. The same mechanism is responsible for the acquired variety of supravalvar mitral stenosis that occurs after mitral annuloplasty for repair of mitral regurgitation.

Supravalvar mitral ring rarely occurs as an isolated defect; other congenital heart defects coexist in 90% of patients. The mitral valve itself is often abnormal and stenotic at the valvar or subvalvar level; fusion of leaflets, a small valve orifice, and abnormal papillary muscles are common abnormalities. Shone complex is a combination of 4 congenital heart defects: supravalvar mitral ring, parachute mitral valve, subvalvar aortic stenosis, and aortic coarctation. Other common associated lesions in patients with supravalvar mitral ring are ventricular septal defect (VSD), patent ductus arteriosus (PDA), atrioventricular (AV) canal defect, and tetralogy of Fallot.

Uncommonly associated defects include atrial septal defect, cor triatriatum, left superior vena cava, unroofed coronary sinus, partial anomalous pulmonary venous drainage, pulmonary venous obstruction, double-orifice mitral valve, and Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome. Lesions such as transposition of the great arteries, AV discordance, and double-outlet right ventricle are occasionally complicated by a supravalvar left AV valvular ring.

Obstruction to mitral inflow results from reduced area of the mitral valve orifice. When clinically significant, a diastolic pressure difference occurs between the left atrium and the LV. Left atrial and pulmonary venous pressures increase, leading to exudation of fluid into the pulmonary interstitium, which increases lung stiffness. Breathlessness and tachypnea are secondary to the interstitial edema and diminished pulmonary compliance. In severe cases, frank pulmonary edema can occur. An associated atrial septal defect may decompress the left atrium, reducing or masking the severity of the mitral-valve obstruction. Associated lesions, such as VSD or PDA, which increase LV output, exacerbate the manifestations of mitral-inflow obstruction. In the converse, a supravalvar mitral ring may be difficult to detect in conditions with diminished pulmonary blood flow, such as tetralogy of Fallot.

Persistently elevated pulmonary venous hypertension leads to pulmonary arterial hypertension, a rise in pulmonary vascular resistance, and eventual failure of the right ventricle. Tricuspid regurgitation commonly accompanies right heart failure from pulmonary hypertension.

Frequency

International

No data are available on the incidence of supravalvar mitral ring. In most patients, the supravalvar mitral ring is detected during investigation for other congenital heart disease (CHD) or mitral-valve disease.

Race

No specific race predilection has been reported.

Sex

Supravalvular ring has no specific sex predilection.

Age

No specific age predilection exists.

CLINICAL

Section 3 of 11  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• Multimedia
• References

History

Supravalvar mitral ring can be diagnosed in one of the following ways:

• Supravalvar mitral ring is most commonly diagnosed as an associated finding in other CHD.
• Supravalvar mitral ring is occasionally the cause of congenital mitral stenosis in symptomatic children with dyspnea or pulmonary hypertension. The severity of symptoms depends on the level of left atrial and pulmonary venous hypertension.
• Most patients become symptomatic by age 2 years.
• In rare cases, this condition may be detected as an incidental finding in asymptomatic patients undergoing echocardiography for some unrelated reason.
• Symptoms of supravalvar mitral ring with mitral stenosis include one or more of the following:
• • Dyspnea, nocturnal cough, and tachypnea from pulmonary venous congestion and increased lung stiffness
  • Frequent respiratory infections and wheezing from pulmonary congestion, increased fluid exudation, and airway narrowing
  • Poor feeding, failure to thrive, fatigue, and sweating from heart failure and reduced cardiac output
  • Occasionally acute pulmonary edema or generalized edema
  • Hemoptysis and syncope in older patients

Physical

Physical signs in supravalvar mitral ring are usually related either to the associated CHD or to pulmonary arterial hypertension. Children with clinically significant mitral obstruction are often sick, with tachypnea and respiratory distress. Diminished cardiac output and poor perfusion lead to a low volume pulse and peripheral cyanosis. Systemic venous pressure may be elevated with the development of congestive heart failure (CHF). A prominent parasternal heave indicates right ventricular hypertrophy from pulmonary hypertension.

The pulmonary component of the second heart sound is accentuated. Unlike acquired mitral-valve stenosis, an opening snap of the mitral valve is not common in supravalvar mitral ring. An apical middiastolic murmur of mitral stenosis may be audible at the apex, especially in the left lateral decubitus, and it may exhibit presystolic accentuation. The murmur is prominent when supravalvar mitral ring is associated with VSD or PDA, causing a large mitral inflow.

Patients with chronic mitral obstruction develop signs of tricuspid regurgitation and CHF, such as hepatomegaly, engorged neck veins, large expansile CV waves in the jugular venous pulse, and a systolic murmur that accentuates in inspiration at the lower left sternal border.

DIFFERENTIALS

Section 4 of 11  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• Multimedia
• References

Other Problems to be Considered

Pulmonary hypertension, CHD

WORKUP

Section 5 of 11  

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• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
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• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• Multimedia
• References

Lab Studies

• No specific laboratory blood tests are required for diagnosis.

Imaging Studies

• Imaging studies are essential to define the anatomy of the ring and mitral valve, to assess the severity of obstruction, and to identify any associated defect before undertaking surgical treatment.
• Chest radiography
• • Left atrial enlargement, the most common abnormality on chest radiographs in patients with mitral obstruction, is diagnosed on the basis of straightening of the left cardiac border (mitralization), widening of the tracheal carina, and elevation of the left bronchus. In older children, the enlarged left atrium may be seen as a double opacity near the right cardiac border.
  • The left atrium tends to enlarge in a posterior direction. Barium-swallow study of the esophagus in lateral projection shows a rounded indentation of the anterior wall.
  • Prominent upper-lobe pulmonary veins, increased interstitial markings, and Kerley lines indicate pulmonary venous hypertension. In severe cases, alveolar edema produces a hazy appearance in the hilar regions of both lung fields.
  • The pulmonary trunk and its branches become dilated with the rise in pulmonary arterial pressure. The cardiac contour reflects right ventricular hypertrophy.
• Echocardiography
• • Two-dimensional echocardiography with Doppler imaging is the most important tool for the diagnosis and detailed assessment of patients with supravalvar mitral ring. It depicts the lesion and helps in quantifying the severity of the obstruction.
  • Perform systematic and diligent scanning of the mitral valve and left atrium by using multiple transthoracic views and by paying particular attention to evaluate all components of the mitral-valve apparatus. Use parasternal, apical, and subcostal views to visualize the mitral inflow region.
  • Using this technique allows the physician to view the supravalvar mitral ring and define its exact position, size, and extent and to assess the relation of the ring to the mitral-valve leaflets.
  • On occasion, a thin membrane may so closely adhere to the valve leaflets that it is difficult to visualize on 2-dimensional echocardiography. With an adherent membrane, the movements of mitral-valve leaflets may be impaired; this condition is characterized by diminished excursions and a flattened E-F slope on M-mode echocardiography of the mitral valve.
  • Inspect the mitral-valve chordae and papillary muscles for any associated abnormality. Exclude other associated defects, particularly subaortic stenosis, VSD, and coarctation of the aorta.
  • The pulmonary artery, right ventricle, and right atrium enlarge with the development of pulmonary arterial hypertension.
  • Use M-mode echocardiography of the pulmonary valve, which often shows such signs of pulmonary hypertension as an abbreviated A wave, midsystolic closure, and systolic flutter of pulmonary leaflets.
  • Real-time 3-dimensional echocardiography permits comprehensive assessment of the mitral valve and may supplement 2-dimensional transthoracic echocardiography.
• Doppler echocardiography
• • Doppler interrogation and color-flow mapping reveal the pattern of flow through the mitral valve, diagnose the presence and severity of obstruction, and demonstrate additional areas of abnormal flow in valvar or subvalvar mitral regions. The characteristic finding is turbulent flow with increased velocity across the supravalvar mitral ring into the mitral valve.
  • Quantify the severity of mitral obstruction by measuring the mean velocity of diastolic flow through the mitral valve. The mean diastolic velocity and the pressure half-time (time for the peak diastolic velocity to decrease to half its initial value) are well correlated with the severity of obstruction.
  • Measure the peak velocity of the tricuspid regurgitant jet in the right atrium for an estimate of systolic right ventricular pressure.

Other Tests

• Transesophageal echocardiography
• • In children, transesophageal echocardiography is generally not necessary to assess a supravalvar mitral ring with obstruction because adequate information can be obtained from transthoracic windows.
  • In adults, transesophageal study can provide additional clear views to inspect all components of the supravalvar mitral ring and mitral valve.
  • Thrombi in the left atrium may be detected.
  • Intraoperative transesophageal echocardiography is useful for patients of all ages to assess adequacy of repair in the operating room.

• Electrocardiography
• • In cases of isolated supravalvar mitral ring, the electrocardiogram demonstrates left atrial enlargement, right ventricular hypertrophy, and right atrial enlargement in proportion to the degree of obstruction.
  • Additional defects influence the electrocardiogram accordingly.

Procedures

• Cardiac catheterization
• • Cardiac catheterization is not necessary if echocardiography provides all of the necessary anatomic and hemodynamic data in patients with supravalvar mitral ring. However, it can provide additional information about the severity of mitral obstruction, especially in the presence of other associated CHD.
  • Proximal left atrial pressure and pulmonary venous pressure are both elevated. A diastolic pressure difference can be demonstrated between the left atrium and the LV. Because entry into the left atrium may be difficult and because transseptal puncture may be required, the pressure recorded in the pulmonary artery wedge position is usually a reliable indicator of left atrial pressure.
  • Pulmonary artery pressure is elevated in chronic mitral obstruction. Associated shunts and other obstructive lesions are also identified and quantified during cardiac catheterization.

• Cardiac angiography
• • With the availability of high-quality 2-dimensional and Doppler echocardiography, cardiac angiography has a limited role in the assessment of patients with supravalvar mitral ring. Echocardiography is superior to angiography in defining the anatomic and functional abnormality.
  • Left atrial angiography in the caudally angulated right anterior oblique view and the 4-chamber view may demonstrate the supravalvar mitral ring. However, a closely adherent ring may be difficult to visualize and differentiate from mitral valvar stenosis. The left atrium and appendage are enlarged, and clearance of contrast material from the left atrium into the LV is delayed.
  • An LV angiogram provides additional anatomic information about the mitral valve, ventricular septum, LV outflow tract, and aortic arch.

TREATMENT

Section 6 of 11  

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Medical Care

Evaluate patients with supravalvar mitral ring on an outpatient basis. Admit patients to the hospital for cardiac catheterization, for treatment of severe heart failure or pulmonary edema, and for surgery.

• Goals of medical treatment
• • To relieve symptoms caused by pulmonary venous congestion and CHF
  • To stabilize the patient's condition before undertaking detailed assessment and surgical repair
  • To serve as an adjunct to surgical repair in the postoperative period
  • To control heart failure in small infants, in whom it may be the only option (Controlling CHF may temporarily defer surgery.)

Surgical Care

• Indications for and goals of surgical therapy
  
  
  • Perform surgical repair in all symptomatic patients with supravalvar mitral stenosis to relieve the obstruction.
  • Perform an early operation on the supravalvar mitral ring in the presence of severe heart failure, pulmonary edema, or pulmonary arterial hypertension.
  • Adjust the type of operation depending on the anatomy of the supravalvar ring and mitral valve apparatus and any associated congenital heart defect. Make every effort to define the anatomy in detail before undertaking surgery. In many patients, the supravalvar ring can be excised completely, whereas any associated mitral valve abnormality is repaired simultaneously. If the supravalvar ring is strongly adherent to the mitral valve leaflet or if the mitral valve apparatus is grossly abnormal, replacement of the mitral valve may be necessary.
  • All associated defects must be repaired at the same time. In fact, surgery is often necessary for the associated heart defects even if the supravalvar mitral ring is not causing major hemodynamic disturbance.
  • The presence of a normal underlying mitral valve is associated with a surgical outcome better than that obtained with an abnormal valve apparatus, which may need replacement.
  • In patients who require surgery at an early age, the prognosis is poor. The mortality rate is high. Recurrent supravalvar mitral stenosis is a risk in as many as 15% of survivors, probably because of continuing turbulence across the small LV inflow tract.
  • Patients with Shone complex have a wide spectrum of anatomic abnormalities. Staged repair is usually necessary for coarctation treatment, the relief of left ventricular outflow tract obstruction, and reconstruction of the mitral valve. The results are encouraging, with an actuarial survival rate of as much as 89% 15 years after repair. Operative mortality is increased by severe mitral valve disease, left ventricular hypoplasia, and the need for multiple operative procedures.
• Percutaneous transcatheter balloon dilation has been used in selected cases of supravalvar mitral ring, but the results are less satisfactory than surgical outcomes. Surgical resection is considered the treatment of choice.

Consultations

Consult a cardiologist and a cardiothoracic surgeon.

Diet

• No special diet is required in asymptomatic patients with supravalvar mitral ring.
• Advise patients with heart failure to avoid excess intake of salt or to reduce their salt intake. Prescribe salt restriction cautiously in infants.
• Restrict fluid intake to approximately 60-80 mL/kg/d in infants with CHF.

Activity

Advise patients with pulmonary venous congestion or CHF to avoid strenuous exertion. Asymptomatic children without pulmonary hypertension may participate in normal activities.

MEDICATION

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Medical therapy for supravalvar mitral ring consists of drugs to control pulmonary venous congestion and cardiac failure. The 2 main categories of drugs used are diuretics to promote excretion of excess water and positive inotropic drugs to improve myocardial function. Medical therapy helps to relieve symptoms of pulmonary edema and CHF, but it does not correct the underlying anatomic problem of obstruction.

Antibiotics are necessary for intercurrent bacterial infections and for prophylaxis of infective endocarditis during dental or surgical procedures. For more information, see Antibiotic Prophylactic Regimens for Endocarditis.

Drug Category: Diuretics

These agents are useful to remove excess water that accumulates in heart failure and to relieve symptoms associated with pulmonary edema and peripheral edema.

Drug Category: Inotropic agents

Positive inotropic agents increase the force of myocardial contraction and are used to treat acute and chronic CHF. Some may also provide vasodilatation, improve myocardial relaxation, or increase or decrease the heart rate (positive or negative chronotropic agents, respectively). These additional properties influence the choice of drug for specific circumstances.

FOLLOW-UP

Section 8 of 11  

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• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• Multimedia
• References

Further Inpatient Care

• Admit the patient to the hospital for either cardiac catheterization or surgical treatment.
• Adjunctive therapeutic measures may be needed.
• • Administer potassium supplements to all patients receiving furosemide or thiazide diuretics.
  • Restrict physical activity of symptomatic patients.
  • Place patients with severe pulmonary venous congestion in the sitting or propped-up position.
  • Administer parenteral morphine in patients with pulmonary edema to help relieve anxiety and reduce pulmonary congestion.
  • Administer oxygen by a nasal catheter or mask to improve oxygenation in acute pulmonary edema.
  • Vigorously treat concurrent infections or other aggravating factors.
  • Correct anemia if present. Increase the oxygen carrying capacity by a packed-cell transfusion to give considerable relief in patients with severe symptoms of CHF.
  • Counsel all patients with supravalvar mitral ring concerning the need for antibiotic prophylaxis against infective endocarditis when they undergo any dental or surgical procedure.

Further Outpatient Care

• Provide follow-up care on an outpatient basis for monitoring symptoms, compliance with treatment, dose requirements, and early recognition of adverse drug effects.
• Periodically check serum electrolyte levels and renal function in patients taking diuretics.
• Prompt detection and treatment of intercurrent infections, arrhythmia, and other complications helps to reduce morbidity and prevent worsening of CHF.

In/Out Patient Meds

• Continue treatment with diuretics and digoxin in patients with supravalvar mitral ring and CHF.
• Recommend use of a potassium supplement, especially in children receiving furosemide therapy.
• Antibiotics are necessary for intercurrent bacterial infections and for prophylaxis of infective endocarditis during dental or surgical procedures.

Transfer

• Transfer patients to a tertiary cardiac center for further diagnostic evaluation and surgical correction.

Deterrence/Prevention

• Symptomatic patients with supravalvar mitral ring should avoid sports and other strenuous activity that could aggravate pulmonary congestion and CHF.

Complications

• Possible complications of supravalvar mitral ring include pulmonary edema, pulmonary arterial hypertension, atrial arrhythmia, left atrial thrombus, embolic episodes, recurrent pulmonary infections, and infective endocarditis.
• Cerebral venous thrombosis has been described in infants with supravalvar mitral ring.

Prognosis

• Among patients with congenital mitral stenosis, those with supravalvar mitral ring have a relatively good prognosis. Complete surgical excision is feasible and usually provides lasting relief. The presence of a normal underlying mitral valve and absence of other major cardiac lesions are associated with a better surgical outcome.
• The prognosis is poor in patients who require resection at an early age. The mortality rate is high. Recurrent supravalvar mitral stenosis is a risk in survivors, probably because of continuing turbulence across the small LV inflow tract.
• In patients with Shone complex, thickened mitral valve leaflets, shortened chordae, subvalvar abnormalities, left ventricular outflow obstruction, and aortic incompetence were associated with rapid progression of hemodynamic abnormalities and poor prognosis.

Patient Education

• Educate the patient and family about the importance of regular medical treatment, of periodic medical review, of restricting heavy physical exertion, of the need for antibiotic prophylaxis during dental and surgical procedures, and of the need to promptly attend to all infections.

MISCELLANEOUS

Section 9 of 11  

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• Miscellaneous
• Multimedia
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Medical/Legal Pitfalls

• Failure to recognize supravalvar mitral ring as an associated defect in patients with coarctation or subaortic stenosis
• Failure to recognize associated abnormalities of the mitral valve and LV outflow tract in patients with supravalvar mitral ring
• Failure to identify the presence of a supravalvar mitral ring in patients with symptoms and signs of mitral stenosis

Special Concerns

• Supravalvar mitral ring may not be easily detectable in children with CHD; therefore, awareness of the problem and careful echocardiographic screening are important in all children with CHD.

MULTIMEDIA

Section 10 of 11  

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• Miscellaneous
• Multimedia
• References

Media file 1:  Two-dimensional echocardiogram, parasternal long-axis view, shows a supravalvar mitral ring (small arrows) close to and adherent to the mitral valve leaflet (large arrow). The ring and the restricted opening of the mitral valve cause mitral obstruction. Large ventricular septal defect is also present. LA = left atrium, LV = left ventricle, AO = aorta, RV = right ventricle.
	View Full Size Image
Media type:  Photo

Media file 2:  Two-dimensional echocardiogram with color flow imaging in the parasternal long-axis view shows turbulent flow (arrow) in diastole from the left atrium (LA) to the left ventricle (LV). The cause is an obstructive supravalvar mitral ring. RV = right ventricle.
	View Full Size Image
Media type:  Photo

Media file 3:  Two-dimensional echocardiogram in the apical view shows the supravalvar mitral ring (small arrows) adherent to the mitral-valve leaflet (large arrow). LA = left atrium, LV = left ventricle, RA = right atrium, RV = right ventricle.
	View Full Size Image
Media type:  Photo

Media file 4:  Two-dimensional echocardiogram with color-flow imaging in apical view shows turbulent flow (arrow) in diastole from the left atrium (LA) to the left ventricle (LV). The cause is an obstructive supravalvar mitral ring. RA = right atrium, RV = right ventricle.
	View Full Size Image
Media type:  Photo

Media file 5:  Simultaneous recording of pressures in the pulmonary artery wedge position (PAW) and the left ventricle (LV) shows a large gradient in diastole across the mitral valve. PAW pressure is markedly elevated.
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Media type:  Graph

Media file 6:  M-mode echocardiogram of the mitral valve in a patient with supravalvar mitral ring causing obstruction. Mitral-valve leaflets show diminished excursion and a markedly reduced E-F slope in diastole. RV = right ventricle, LV = left ventricle, MV = mitral valve.
	View Full Size Image
Media type:  Photo

REFERENCES

Section 11 of 11

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• Multimedia
• References

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Article Last Updated: Jul 17, 2007