You are in: eMedicine Specialties > Orthopedic Surgery > ELBOW Medial EpicondylitisArticle Last Updated: Sep 28, 2007AUTHOR AND EDITOR INFORMATIONSection 1 of 10
  Author: Lacie Alfonso, MD, Medical Director, The Rehabilitation Center at Dauterive Hospital Lacie Alfonso is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation and American Medical Association Coauthor(s): Stephen Kishner, MD, Residency Program Director, Professor of Clinical Medicine, Department of Medicine, Section of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Louisiana State University School of Medicine; James Monroe Laborde, MD, MS, Clinical Assistant Professor, Department of Orthopedics, Tulane Medical School; Adjunct Assistant Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tulane University; Consulting Staff, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center Editors: Steven I Rabin, MD, Clinical Associate Professor, Loyola University Medical Center; Chair, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Dreyer Medical Clinic; Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD, Senior Pharmacy Editor, eMedicine; Robert J Nowinski, DO, Clinical Assistant Professor of Orthopaedic Surgery, Ohio University College of Osteopathic Medicine; Private Practice, Orthopedic Specialists and Sports Medicine, Newark, Ohio; Dinesh Patel, MD, FACS, Associate Clinical Professor of Orthopedic Surgery, Harvard Medical School; Chief of Arthroscopic Surgery, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital; Harris Gellman, MD, Consulting Surgeon, Broward Hand Center, Voluntary Clinical Professor of Orthopedic Surgery and Plastic Surgery, Departments of Orthopedic Surgery and Surgery, University of Miami School of Medicine Author and Editor Disclosure Synonyms and related keywords: golfer's elbow, golf elbow, tendinosis, elbow pain, angiofibroblastic degeneration INTRODUCTIONSection 2 of 10
  Medial epicondylitis, also called golfer's elbow, was first described in 1882 by Henry J. Morris in the The Lancet.1 This condition is an overuse syndrome that is characterized by pain at the flexor-pronator tendinous origin and is seen in sports activities with repetitive valgus stress, flexion, and pronation, such as occurs in golf, baseball, tennis, fencing, and swimming. This condition is also seen with occupations that require hand, wrist, and forearm motions.2 The flexor carpi radialis and the pronator teres are commonly involved at the insertion of the medial epicondyle; however, the flexor digitorum superficialis and the flexor carpi ulnaris are less likely to be involved. Ulnar neuropathy may be associated in approximately 50% of cases.3 Originally, inflammation was thought to generate the pain in medial epicondylitis. However, magnetic resonance images (MRIs) and histology show the presence of microtears in the flexor-pronator tendons without inflammation. In addition, histologic evaluation following surgical treatment has revealed angiofibroblastic hyperplasia and fibrillar degeneration of collagen.4 Nirsch used the terms "tendinosis" and "angiofibroblastic degeneration" to describe the pathophysiology of medial epicondylitis as microtears in the tendon with a poor healing response.5 An acutely inflammatory component may be seen, but the tendon may degenerate over weeks to months.
In the United States, medial epicondylitis is reported to be the most common cause of medial elbow pain. However, it is less common than lateral epicondylitis.6 There is a sex predilection for men, with a male-to-female ratio 2:1. The peak incidence of this condition is noted to be between the third and fifth decades of life. The dominant elbow is involved in approximately 60% of cases, and 30% of patients have an acute onset, with 70% having an insidious onset.3 ANATOMYSection 3 of 10
The ulnar (or medial) collateral ligament and the radial (or lateral) collateral ligament are the elbow stabilizers. The ulnar collateral ligament is the primary valgus stabilizer, and the radial collateral ligament is the primary varus stabilizer.
The muscles involved in medial epicondylitis primarily include the pronator teres and the flexor carpi radialis. Less likely to be involved are the palmaris longus, the flexor digitorum superficialis, and the flexor carpi ulnaris. The second most commonly involved muscle is the flexor carpi radialis, which also has a primary origin from the MCT, with a small area of origin from the medial epicondyle. The MCT serves as an important surgical landmark for identification of the involved muscles and in the avoidance of the AOL.3 It is important to review the anatomic landmark of the ulnar nerve and the medial antebrachial cutaneous nerve before proceeding with any surgical procedure. At the elbow, the ulnar nerve enters the ulnar groove between the medial epicondyle and the olecranon process. The medial antebrachial cutaneous nerve is in the subcutaneous tissue just proximal to the medial epicondyle, where it divides into the anterior and posterior branches. The posterior branch travels directly over the flexor pronator mass to the posterior medial forearm.7 CLINICAL HISTORY AND PHYSICAL EXAMINATIONSection 4 of 10
History The most common symptom that patients report with medial epicondylitis is achy pain over the anterior medial epicondyle, usually during activity, and the patient may describe weakness in the forearm or hand. In addition, radiation of the pain may occur in the shoulder, forearm, or hand. To evaluate and diagnose this condition, the patient should be questioned regarding trauma, medical, and surgical history; medications; sensory symptoms; and duration and frequency of symptoms. Physical examination Begin the examination with inspection of the medial aspect of the affected elbow. Proceed with palpation of the medial and lateral epicondyles, olecranon, brachial pulse, olecranon fossa, capitellum, and radial head. Finally, palpate the triceps, biceps, and flexor and extensor muscles. Palpate the ulnar nerve in the ulnar groove while the patient flexes the arm. In some patients, the ulnar nerve will sublux out of the groove medially over the medial epicondyle. Clinical diagnosis of medial epicondylitis should be considered if tenderness to palpation is present over the anterior aspect of the medial epicondyle. Some patients may have tenderness just distal to the medial epicondyle over the flexor-pronator tendinous bands. The affected elbow's range of motion (ROM) should be normal. The neurologic examination, including motor, sensory, and reflex testing, is very important to exclude cervical radiculopathy and ulnar neuropathy. Evaluate for a Tinel sign between the olecranon and the medial epicondyle to detect ulnar neuropathy (ie, lightly tapping on the nerve exacerbates the patient's symptoms and/or results in a tingling paresthesia). Pain over the medial epicondyle should be worse with resisted wrist flexion and pronation. Valgus and varus stress testing should be performed to evaluate for ulnar and radial collateral ligament instability. Surgery is contraindicated in the presence of any ligamentous instability. DIFFERENTIALSSection 5 of 10
Cervical Radiculopathy Thoracic Outlet Syndrome Ulnar Collateral Ligament Injury Ulnar neuropathy WORKUPSection 6 of 10
CONSERVATIVE TREATMENTSection 7 of 10
The mainstay of treatment for medial epicondylitis is conservative management, which includes the following:
Patient education The patient should be educated about the condition's contributing factors and activity modification. Increased wrist flexion and pronation should be avoided. If ulnar neuropathy is associated with the medial epicondylitis, the patient should avoid elbow flexion and leaning on the elbow. In addition, in the immediate term, the patient should place ice packs on the medial epicondyle for 10-15 minutes 3-4 times per day to decrease the inflammation that occurs early in medial epicondylitis. McCarroll reported that most elbow injuries that are seen during the sport of golf occur during impact.10 The author recommended that golfers with medial epicondylitis should seek a professional instructor for the proper technique and equipment. Golf-swing modification should begin with a smooth back swing, with the wrist cocking naturally. During the back swing–to–impact transition, motion should begin in the hips to reduce stress in the arms and elbow. Also, McCarroll recommended that the forward arm motion should be initiated by the shoulder, not the wrists. The common incorrect swing of casting the club into the swing or hitting from the top can be a major contributor to the development of medial epicondylitis.10 Moreover, golfers should physically condition themselves to become fit through stretching, strengthening, and cardiovascular exercise before participating in the golf game. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs If the patient does not have a contraindication, NSAIDs should be started immediately to decrease inflammation and pain. Be cautious in using these agents in patients who have renal insufficiency, a history of gastrointestinal problems, or both. Therapy with stretching and strengthening modalities Wilks and Andrews developed a rehabilitation protocol to address the acute, subacute, and chronic phases of medial and lateral epicondylitis.11 The primary goal of managing the acute phase is to decrease inflammation and pain. Patients are instructed on activity modifications and avoidance of painful movements. Stretching is started to increase flexibility, and therapy modalities such as cryotherapy, whirlpool, phonophoresis, iontophoresis, and friction massage are used with success. The primary goals of the subacute phase are to improve flexibility, to improve strength, and to increase functional activities. Hand, wrist, elbow, and shoulder strengthening and ROM exercises are started and continued. A counterforce brace/splint is applied. Cryotherapy is used before and after therapy, and the previously painful movements are reinitiated. The primary goal of the chronic phase is maintenance of strength and flexibility with gradual return to higher-level activities. The flexibility and strengthening exercises are continued, with gradual diminishing of the counterforce brace/wrist splint. Sports activities are gradually reinitiated. The equipment can be modified at this point. Modalities are used in the evening, and a maintenance program/home-exercise program is started. Wrist splints The wrist splint is placed in a neutral position to rest the flexors. A counterforce brace is applied to the anteromedial/proximal forearm distal to the epicondyle. Avoid placing the medial counterforce brace over the ulnar nerve.3 Corticosteroid injections If the patient's symptoms persist after 2 weeks of conservative management, then consider a corticosteroid injection. With a 25-gauge 0.5-inch needle, inject 1-2 mL of equal amounts 2% lidocaine and triamcinolone acetonide (Kenalog; Bristol-Myers Squibb Co, Princeton, NJ) at 10 mg/mL over the medial epicondyle at the area of maximal tenderness. Direct the patient to position the elbow in extension to avoid the ulnar nerve because some patients may have ulnar nerve subluxation with flexion. To avoid the tendon, never inject under pressure; and to avoid the ulnar nerve, do not inject if the patient reports a sharp, radiating sensation. In 1997, Stahl and Kaufman conducted a prospective, randomized, double-blind study to analyze the short- and long-term effects of local injections of methylprednisolone for the treatment of medial epicondylitis.12 Fifty-eight patients were monitored over 1 year. The authors concluded that the local injection provided only short-term (up to 6 wk) benefits. Compared with the group that did not receive steroids, the outcome was the same with regard to pain at 3 months and at 1 year. Therefore, the injection should be considered early in treatment, with the goal of pain relief. Other techniques, such as low-level laser therapy and shockwave therapy, have been attempted but have been shown to be unsuccessful.13 SURGICAL TREATMENTSection 8 of 10
Surgical treatment should be considered in cases in which conservative treatment has failed after 6-12 months and after all other pathology has been excluded. Medial epicondylitis is classified based on the presence and severity of concomitant ulnar neuropathy. Type IA has no associated ulnar neuropathy, type IB has mild symptoms that are associated with ulnar neuropathy, and type II has moderate to severe symptoms that are associated with ulnar neuropathy.14 In 2000, Gabel and Morrey described the following classification system to guide surgical treatment3:
The following technique is used for type IA medial epicondylitis.3 Variations with epicondylar debridement can be used, depending on the literature and surgical preference. Epicondylar debridement begins with a 3- to 7-cm incision just anterior to the medial epicondyle. The posterior division of the medial antebrachial cutaneous nerve must be identified and avoided during the approach through the subcutaneous tissue. The common flexor pronator origin is identified, and in order to protect the ulnar nerve, the nerve is identified in the ulnar groove. The flexor pronator fascia is incised, and a 2-mm rim of superficial fascia is preserved on the medial epicondyle for later repair. The lesion is identified at the MCT, and the AOL is also identified. The lesion is excised, and the AOL is protected for elbow stability. The anterior cortex is roughened with a curette or by drilling multiple small holes to increase the blood supply. The common flexor pronator origin is then repaired to the superficial fascia with interrupted sutures, and the subcutaneous tissue and skin are closed in routine fashion. In type IB cases with ulnar nerve compression, the cubital tunnel release is performed along with epicondylar debridement. If ulnar subluxation or adhesions are encountered, a submuscular transposition is performed. In type II cases, a debridement is performed with a submuscular transposition of the ulnar nerve.3 Postoperative management includes an immobilizing splint or cast for 1-3 weeks. ROM exercises are started after removal of the splint or cast. A stretching and strengthening flexor-pronator program is started 6 weeks after surgery. Surgical results correlate with the type of medial epicondylitis. Type IA or IB medial epicondylitis has a 95% good or excellent postoperative success rate.3 Type II cases that have more involved ulnar neuropathy have a poorer prognosis secondary to the failure of the neuropathy to respond to surgical management.3 Medial epicondylitis is not routinely managed arthroscopically. Some authorities report an arthroscopic technique for lateral epicondylitis. COMPLICATIONSSection 9 of 10
Recognizing and treating medial epicondylitis in the acute stage is very important. The long-term complications of the untreated condition include chronic pain, loss of function, and possible elbow contracture.15 Other important complications include the well-known adverse effects of NSAIDs, most commonly gastrointestinal bleeding, ulceration, and renal dysfunction. Local steroid injections may increase the risk of infection, skin pigmentary changes and skin atrophy, ulnar nerve damage, and tendon rupture.15 Complications of surgical treatment include restricted ROM, neuropathic pain from injury to the medial antebrachial cutaneous nerve or ulnar nerve, and medial elbow instability. In most patients, medial epicondylitis resolves with conservative treatment at 6 months, but this may take up to 2 years. REFERENCESSection 10 of 10
Article Last Updated: Sep 28, 2007 |
