Sections

Catatonia

Overview

Practice Essentials

Catatonia is a state of apparent unresponsiveness to external stimuli and apparent inability to move normally in a person who is apparently awake.^[1]There are 3 types: (1) catatonia associated with another mental disorder (catatonia specifier), (2) catatonic disorder due to another medical condition, and (3) unspecified catatonia.

Signs and symptoms

Catatonia can be acute and occur in severely ill patients with underlying psychiatric or other medical disorders.^{[2, 3]}Individuals with catatonia often cannot provide a coherent history; however, collateral sources are crucial sources of relevant historical information. Thorough review of old records is needed to figure out possible causes of the behaviors of people with catatonia. A history of behavioral responses to others usually includes the presence of the following:

Mutism (absence of speech)
Negativism (performing actions contrary to the commands of the examiner)
Echopraxia (repeating the movements of others)
Echolalia (repeating the words of others)
Waxy flexibility (slight, even resistance to positioning by examiner)
Withdrawal (absence of responses to the environment)

The alternative presentation of catatonia is an excited state, possibly with impulsivity, combativeness, and autonomic instability.

The history should inquire into the following:

Possible precipitating events, including infection, trauma, and exposure to toxins and other substances
Previous similar episodes of catatonia
Exposure to neuroleptics and other substances associated with catatonia
Comorbid disorders, including schizophrenia, mood disorders, psychological stressors, medical conditions, and obstetric conditions

In an emergency setting, treatable common causes of catatonia must be rapidly considered and ruled out. In addition, the following must be considered:

Neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS)
Encephalitis
Nonconvulsive status epilepticus
Acute psychosis
Anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis^[4]

The physical examination should include evaluation of the patient for the following:

Excited and immobile states
Negativistic phenomena, such as gegenhalten (passive resistance of the patient to the active movement of the patient's extremities by the examiner^[5]) and mitgehen (the patient moves an extremity in the direction of a minimal push by the examiner despite the instruction to remain still and to not move^[5])
Automatic obedience (following all commands of the examiner including inflicting harm on self and others)
Stereotypies (eg, nose wrinkling; repetitive movements of the mouth and the jaw; repetitive eye movements; repetitive tapping of the foot, the finger, or the hand; and repetitive abdomen patting, shoulder shrugging, or body rocking)
Perseveration (the inappropriate repetition of acts)
Echophenomena (echolalia [repeating the words of others] and echopraxia [repeating the movements of others])
Inappropriate verbal usage (eg, in French, inappropriate use of vous, the formal word for "you" in place of tu, the informal word for "you.")
Comorbid conditions (eg, schizophrenia, mood disorders, and neurologic and medical conditions)
Psychogenic movement disorders (eg, somatoform disorders, factitious disorders, and malingering)

See Presentation for more detail.

Diagnosis

Laboratory studies that may be useful include the following:

Complete blood count (CBC)
Electrolyte concentrations
Chemical analyses of blood
Fibrin D-dimer
Serum creatine kinase level
Liver function tests
Serum ceruloplasmin level

Imaging is mainly useful for ruling out other treatable disorders. Modalities that may be helpful include the following:

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
Computed tomography (CT)
Single-photon emission CT (SPECT)
Positron emission tomography (PET) with fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG)

Electroencephalography (EEG) is indicated to rule out a seizure disorder, a space-occupying lesion, and generalized abnormalities.

See Workup for more detail.

Management

Prompt treatment in the early phases of catatonic states is crucial to obtaining a lasting abatement of symptoms. Treatable conditions must be identified immediately.

Medications that have been used to treatment catatonia include the following:

Benzodiazepines (eg, clonazepam, lorazepam, and midazolam)
Carbamazepine
Zolpidem
Tricyclic antidepressants
Muscle relaxants
Amobarbital
Reserpine
Thyroid hormone
Lithium carbonate
Bromocriptine
Neuroleptics - Traditional neuroleptics are generally avoided; second-generation (atypical) antipsychotics should be used with caution

When nonconvulsive status epilepticus, diffuse encephalopathy, and other neurologic disorders are ruled out, electroconvulsive treatment (ECT) is indicated for patients who do not respond to pharmacotherapy within 5 days or who manifest malignant catatonia.

See Treatment and Medication for more detail.

Background

Catatonia is a state of apparent unresponsiveness to external stimuli and apparent inability to move normally in a person who is apparently awake.^[1]It occurs in children, adolescents, and adults; is associated with a heterogeneous group of comorbid conditions; and is characterized by a variety of symptoms and signs of impairment of the expression of voluntary thoughts and movements.

Psychomotor manifestations of catatonia,^[6]as analyzed by latent class techniques, have been divided into the following 4 classes:^[7]

Automatic
Repetitive/echo
Withdrawal
Agitated/resistive

The American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), categorizes catatonia as belonging to schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders and divides it into the following 3 categories:^[8]

Catatonia associated with another mental disorder (catatonia specifier)
Catatonic disorder due to another medical condition
Unspecified catatonia

It can be difficult to differentiate catatonia from diffuse encephalopathy, nonconvulsive status epilepticus, neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS), acute psychosis, somatization disorder, conversion disorder,^[9]factitious disorder, malingering, and psychogenic movement disorders. (See Presentation, DDx, and Workup.)

The vast differential diagnosis for catatonia notwithstanding, identification of treatable causes (eg, nonconvulsive status epilepticus and anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis^[4]) is crucial to the administration of the needed interventions. When faced with a patient with catatonia, the clinician's first task is always to rule out treatable causes. (See Etiology, Presentation, Workup, Treatment, and Medication.) For more information on catatonia, see the presentation below.

Diagnostic criteria (DSM-5)

For both catatonia associated with another mental disorder (catatonia specifier) and catatonic disorder due to another medical condition, DSM-5 notes that the clinical picture is dominated by the presence of 3 or more of the following 12 features:^[8]

Stupor (no psychomotor activity; not actively relating to environment)
Catalepsy (passive induction of a posture held against gravity)
Waxy flexibility (slight, even resistance to positioning by examiner)
Mutism (no, or very little, verbal response) – This is not applicable if there is established aphasia
Negativism (opposition or no response to instructions or external stimuli)
Posturing (spontaneous and active maintenance of a posture against gravity)
Mannerism (odd, circumstantial caricature of normal actions)
Stereotypy (repetitive, abnormally frequent, non-goal-directed movements)
Agitation, not influenced by external stimuli
Grimacing
Echolalia (mimicking another's speech)
Echopraxia (mimicking another's movements)

Catatonia associated with another mental disorder (catatonia specifier) is indicated when the 3 or more features are present during the course of a neurodevelopmental, psychotic, bipolar, depressive, or other mental disorder. Catatonia appears in 35% of individuals with schizophrenia, but the majority of catatonia cases are associated with depressive or bipolar disorders.

In addition, DSM-5 lists the following criteria as specific for catatonic disorder due to another medical condition:^[8]

There is evidence from the history, physical examination, or laboratory findings that the disturbance is the direct pathophysiologic consequence of another medical condition
The disturbance is not better explained by another mental disorder (eg, a manic episode)
The disturbance does not occur exclusively during the course of delirium
The disturbance causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning

Case report

Typical patients entering the child psychiatry clinic have markedly increased activity. Their parents often chase them while they are bouncing off the walls. By contrast, a tall youth with an immobile facies slowly descended the stairs to the clinic. Although he walked when instructed by his parents, the actions were careful and deliberate. His behavior was so unusual in this setting that factitious disorders were suggested. Was this adolescent deliberately feigning the markedly reduced pace of his movements? Another striking aspect of this patient was the presence of continuous grimacing. He repeatedly blinked his eyes and frowned his face.

On examination he was immobile. He did not speak; he demonstrated mutism. He exhibited negativism. There were no apparent responses to questions. His mother explained that he communicated with her through his eye blinks. However, there was no apparent communication from the patient to the examiner. When he was asked by the examiner to stand still and he was given a slight push forward by the examiner, he walked forward. He exhibited negativism.^{[10, 11, 12, 13]}

Theories of pathogenesis

Catatonia is likely to be the consequence a heterogeneous group of etiologies. Various hypotheses have been proposed about the pathogenesis of catatonia, including the following.

Comorbid psychiatric disorders

Deficits in fetal cortical development may result in schizophrenia and other developmental disorders.^[14]These deficits, in turn, likely produce dysfunction in cortical and subcortical glutamatergic pathways, resulting in the symptoms and signs of catatonia.^{[15, 16]}

Individuals with developmental disability, autism, or other developmental disabilities may be particularly vulnerable to developing catatonia.^{[17, 10, 11, 18, 19, 12, 13, 20]}

Imbalances in the excitatory-to-inhibitory ratio (EIR) may play a role. Baguley proposed that alterations in interrelated networks at the spinal and brainstem level produce catatonia.^[21]

Catatonia may represent an outward manifestation of severe anxiety. Many patients with catatonia reported feeling extremely anxious before and during the catatonic episode.^[22]

Dysfunction of neurotransmission

The administration of agents that block postsynaptic dopamine receptors is associated with the onset of catatonia in some individuals. Agonists of dopamine D1 and D2 receptors relieve catalepsy, a sign of catatonia in rats; this suggests that these agents may be effective pharmacologic interventions. In addition, the effectiveness of electroconvulsive treatment (ECT) for catatonia suggests that dopaminergic modulation may play a role in the development and amelioration of catatonia.

The effectiveness of amantadine in the treatment of catatonia suggests that at least some individuals with catatonia manifest glutamatergic dysfunction.

Decreased binding to gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)–A receptors in the left sensorimotor cortex has been observed in some subjects with catatonia. The favorable responses of some patients with catatonia to benzodiazepines and zolpidem, agonists of GABA-A, suggest that this is a likely site of dysfunction in some cases of catatonia.^[23]Potentiation of the action of GABA by benzodiazepines suggests that some individuals with catatonia may have a functional deficit of GABA.

Some patients may have dysfunction in the neurotransmission of noradrenaline and serotonin. In inbred rats with catalepsy, Alekhina et al reported decreases of noradrenaline and increases of serotonin in the striatum and diencephalon.

Animal models have been developed to study the pathophysiology of catatonia. Uzbay reported that administration of a nonspecific inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase, N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME), to ethanol-dependent rats being withdrawn from ethanol precipitated catatonia.^[24]

Moreover, L-arginine, a precursor of nitric oxide, does not reverse the catatonia precipitated by L-NAME. Therefore, nitric oxide does not mediate the production of the catatonia. Dysfunction of dopaminergic, serotonergic, and glutamatergic systems may play a role in the production of catatonia in ethanol-dependent rats.

Kahlbaum noted lesions of the sylvian fossa and the second and third frontal gyri on autopsy of patients who died with catatonia.^[25]These regions modulate executive functions and the inhibition of voluntary acts.

Inherited influences

Genetic predisposition may characterize individuals who are vulnerable to developing catatonia. Genes on chromosomes 15 and 22 may be linked to the periodic form of catatonia.^{[26, 27]}

Disorders associated with catatonia

Numerous neurologic, psychiatric, psychological, medical, and obstetric conditions and factors have been associated with the development of catatonia (see the Table below).^{[17, 10, 11, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40]}

Table. Causes of Catatonia by Category (Open Table in a new window)

Category	Causes
Neurologic conditions	Neuroleptic malignant syndrome^[28] Administration of agents that block postsynaptic dopamine receptors* Administration of sibutramine^[29](withdrawn from US market October 8, 2010) Withdrawal of lorazepam and other sedatives Akinetic-rigid syndrome Anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis^[4] Arachnoid cyst in right parietal region Astrocytoma Atrophy of left amygdala^[30] Autistic disorder^{[17, 10, 11, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 12, 13]} Basilar artery thrombosis Bilateral hemorrhagic lesions of temporal lobes Cerebellar catalepsy Cerebral hemorrhage Cerebral infarct Cerebrovascular disease Cortical venous thrombosis Central pontine myelinolysis Cortical basal ganglionic degeneration Dystonia Encephalitis (herpesvirus, Trypanosoma cruzi) Encephalopathy (Borrelia burgdorferi, HIV infection, Wernicke encephalopathy) Familial fatal insomnia^[37] Fibromuscular dysplasia with dissection of basilar artery Frontal lobotomy Head injury Huntington disease Hydrocephalus Hypopituitarism secondary to postpartum hemorrhage Idiopathic recurring stupor Inherited neurometabolic disorders Locked-in syndrome Meningitis, tuberculous Meningoencephalitis Multiple sclerosis^{[38, 39]} Neurosyphilis Nonconvulsive status epilepticus Pervasive developmental disorders^{[10, 11, 35]} Pallidoluysian atrophy Paraneoplastic encephalitis^[40] Parkinsonism Postencephalitic parkinsonism Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy Progressive supranuclear palsy Schizencephaly Seizures (complex with partial symptomatology) Stiff-man syndrome Stroke Stupor Subarachnoid hemorrhage Subdural hematoma Substance intoxication (alcohol, disulfiram, organic fluorides, phencyclidine) Subthalamic mesencephalic tumor Surgical removal of cerebellar tumor Tay-Sachs disease Temporal lobe epilepsy Tuberous sclerosis Tumors (corpus callosum, glioma of third ventricle, supraventricular diffuse pinealoma) Vegetative state Von Economo (lethargic) encephalitis Wilson disease
Psychiatric conditions	Acute stress disorder Anorexia nervosa Autistic disorder^[17] Brief reactive psychosis with catatonia Conversion disorder Hysteria Major depression, single episode with catatonic features Mood disorders Neuroleptic malignant syndrome^[28] Posttraumatic stress disorder Schizophrenia Substance intoxication (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine [“ecstasy”], alcohol, amphetamine, phencyclidine, substance withdrawal, hypnotic-sedative, lorazepam)
Psychological factors	Immigration Experiencing rejection of an expression of love Feelings of alienation in an unfamiliar country
Medical conditions	AIDS Acute intermittent porphyria Addison disease Bacterial septicemia Bronchorrhea Carcinoid tumors Diabetic ketoacidosis Encephalopathy (hepatic, HIV infection, Wernicke encephalopathy) Fever of unknown cause Heat stroke Hepatic failure Hereditary coproporphyria Homocystinuria Hypercalcemia Hyperparathyroidism Hyperthyroidism Hyponatremia Hypothermia Intestinal atony Malaria Neuroleptic malignant syndrome^[28] Poisoning (carbon monoxide, tetraethyl lead) Renal failure Substance intoxication (alcohol, cyclosporine, disulfiram, organic fluorides, phencyclidine) Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone (SIADH) Syphilis Systemic lupus erythematosus Thermal injury Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura Tuberculosis Typhoid fever Uremia Von Economo (lethargic) encephalitis
Obstetric conditions	Hypopituitarism secondary to postpartum hemorrhage
*Administration of agents that block postsynaptic dopamine receptors is associated with the onset of catatonia in some individuals.

Neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS)

NMS is characterized by the introduction of a neuroleptic medication or an increase in its dosage, a temperature higher than 38° C, and a heart rate exceeding 100 beats/min or a diastolic blood pressure exceeding 100 mm Hg.^[28]The triad of fever, tachycardia, and rigidity is typical of the syndrome, which is associated with death in about one fifth of cases.

A similar etiology for catatonia and NMS after exposure to antipsychotic medications, including typical and atypical neuroleptics, is suggested by the similar clinical presentation—that is, elevated temperature, rigidity, delirium, and dysregulation of the autonomic nervous system.^[41]

Although apparently uncommon, NMS has been reported in as many as 12.2% of people exposed to neuroleptic medication. Nielsen and Nielsen reported the occurrence of NMS after a single dose of neuroleptic medication.^[42]

Latah betul

Latah betul ("real latah" or "true latah") is a phenomenon in Malaysia that is characterized by apparent loss of control over behavior, as well as by echolalia, echopraxia, and automatic obedience.

Winzeler surveyed ethnic groups in different regions of Malaysia to obtain demographic and epidemiologic data about the condition.^[43]No one younger than 10 years exhibited latah in any of the groups examined. Latah was much more common in women; mature women were the group that most often exhibited latah. People who developed latah had it for the rest of their lives. The onset of the condition was often associated with frightening experiences (in life and in dreams) and with sorcery.

Simons^[44]and Tanner and Chamberland^[45]published videotapes of individuals with latah to facilitate its recognition by individuals from other cultures who are unfamiliar with the condition.

The occurrence of latah betul in older women in particular cultures in Southeast Asia suggests that some individuals in the affected ethnic groups may be more prone to this condition. This is reminiscent of other neuropsychiatric disorders with a genetic basis. The histories of persons with latah betul suggest that in some cases, extreme stress may precipitate the onset of the disorder. Thus, environmental influences may facilitate the development of latah betul in those with an inborn predisposition to express the phenotype of latah betul.

Evaluation of people with latah betul by clinicians experienced with movement disorders may facilitate the application of the standard nomenclature for movement disorders, mental disorders, and other medical conditions to latah betul. The published reports of latah betul suggest the diagnosis of catatonia. Research by individuals trained in the diagnosis of neuropsychiatric disorders will facilitate the understanding of latah betul and its place in a lexicon of diseases.

United States statistics

In general, the incidence of catatonia is estimated to be 10%, ranging from 5% to 20% of acute psychiatrically ill patients.^{[46, 2, 47]}

The current frequency of catatonia in the United States is unknown. A few studies noted a decrease in the frequency of catatonia in parts of the United States over the past century. Various biases may influence the results of the few epidemiologic studies of catatonia mostly due to different methods of the studies and various definitions of catatonia.^[48]In 1994, the incidence of catatonia among psychiatric inpatients in a university hospital in New York was 7%.^[49]However, the hospital was a tertiary care referral hospital known for treatment of catatonia; this, the population probably was not representative of the general population.

International statistics

The current frequency of catatonia in international populations is unknown. The few published epidemiologic studies have reported vastly different rates, suggesting that the frequency of catatonia may vary widely from one location to another. On the other hand, many cases of catatonia may remain undiagnosed. Results may be confounded by an ascertainment bias. In other words, catatonia may be diagnosed less frequently in developing countries than it is in industrialized countries, because clinicians fail to identify the condition in their patients.

The prevalence of catatonia among inpatients of psychiatric hospitals is 11.4% in Colombia,^[50]13.5% in India,^[51]16.9% in Spain,^[52]and 9.6% in Wales.^[51]In a forensic psychiatric hospital in France, the prevalence of catatonia was 13.1%.^[53]In Colombia, treatment apparently is not administered to many patients with catatonia until they have reached an advanced stage of the condition. Benegal et al reported that catatonia appears to be more common in India than in Europe and North America.^[54]

In contrast to studies from Colombia, India, and Spain, reports from several other locations have suggested that the occurrence of catatonia in the general population decreased dramatically in the past century. In Great Britain, the incidence of catatonia dropped from 6% of admissions to a hospital in the 1850s to 0.5% in the 1950s.^[55]

In a psychiatric clinic in Chile, a decrement in the proportion of patients with schizophrenia who manifested catatonia was observed from 1964 to 1984. In Finland, the percentage of patients with schizophrenia displaying catatonia decreased from 37% in 1933-1935 to 11% in 1953-1955.^[56]In Canada, catatonia was present in 10% of inpatient psychiatric admissions in 1993.

Age-, sex-, and race-related demographics

Catatonia is rare in preadolescent children; it has been reported in adolescents and adults.

In Monroe County, New York, the female-to-male ratio was 1.3:1 for catatonic schizophrenia and 1.1:1 for all forms of schizophrenia during the period 1960-1969.^[57]In 1972-1973, a female-to-male ratio of 1.3:1 was observed among inpatients with catatonia admitted to 2 psychiatric units in a municipal hospital in New York City.^[58]

The frequency of catatonia in different races is unknown. Ungvari et al noted the need to investigate the role of ethnic, cultural, and social influences in the development of catatonia.^[59]

Prognosis

Carroll noted that studies of catatonia have reported recovery rates from 12% to more than 40%, regardless of the treatment administered.^[60]A response to benzodiazepines has been reported in more than 70% of patients with catatonia who undergo treatment. Failure to institute treatment early in the course of catatonia is associated with a poor prognosis.

Bonnot et al reported that children with childhood schizophrenia and catatonia have more severe symptoms and a longer duration of illness than do children with childhood schizophrenia without catatonia. They concluded that catatonia has deleterious effects beyond mere motor symptoms in children with schizophrenia.^[61]

Catatonia in adolescents also has a poor prognosis. In a prospective follow-up study of 35 people aged 12-18 years with catatonia, 20 of the 31 patients identified for follow-up had schizophrenia, 5 had major depression, 1 had bipolar disorder type 1, and 2 had brief psychiatric episodes.^[62]At follow-up, 3 deaths were recorded, including 2 suicides. A causal organic disorder was identified for 6 at follow-up. At follow-up, 14 people needed continuous psychiatric care.^[62]

In Monroe County, New York, the age-adjusted relative risk of death for people with catatonic schizophrenia was 3-fold greater that for the county population during the period 1960-1969. However, the risk of death was no higher than with other forms of schizophrenia or other types of mental illness.^[57]

People with catatonia apparently are at increased risk for death from thromboembolic diseases.^[63]Adults with catatonia and schizophrenia have a more prolonged course than those with catatonia without schizophrenia.^[64]

Clinical Presentation

Fink M and Taylor MA. The catatonia syndrome: forgotten but not gone. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2009. 66:1173.
Freudenreich O, Nejad SH, Francis A, Fricchione GL. Psychosis, mania, and catatonia. Levenson JL. Textbook of Psychosomatic Medicine: Psychiatric Care of the Medically Ill. 2nd ed. Washington DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2011.
Freudenreich O, Nejad SH, Francis A, Fricchione GL. Phenomenology of schizophrenia. Sadock BJ, Sadock VA, Ruiz P. Kaplan & Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry. 9th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2009.
Pesyna C, Benson L, Lacy M, Cooper J. Excited Catatonia With a Normal Video EEG: a Case of Anti-NMDA Receptor Encephalitis. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2014. 26:2:
Brasic JR, Barnett JY, Will MV, Nadrich RH, Sheitman BB, Ahmad R, et al. Dyskinesias differentiate autistic disorder from catatonia. CNS Spectr. 2000 Dec. 5(12):19-22. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Ungvari GS, Caroff SN, Gerevich J. The Catatonia Conundrum: Evidence of Psychomotor Phenomena as a Symptom Dimension in Psychotic Disorders. Schizophr Bull. 2009 Sep 23. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full Text].
Ungvari GS, Goggins W, Leung SK, Lee E, Gerevich J. Schizophrenia with prominent catatonic features ('catatonic schizophrenia') III. Latent class analysis of the catatonic syndrome. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2009 Feb 1. 33(1):81-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1994.
Brasic J and Morgan RH. Conversion disorder in childhood. German Journal of Psychiatry. 2002. 5:54-61.
Brasic JR, Zagzag D, Kowalik S, et al. Clinical manifestations of progressive catatonia. German Journal of Psychiatry [serial online]. 2000. [Full Text].
Brasic JR, Zagzag D, Kowalik S, et al. Progressive catatonia. Psychol Rep. 1999 Feb. 84(1):239-46. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Brasic JR. A 20-Year-Old Man Who Stopped Speaking. Medscape. Available at https://reference.medscape.com/viewarticle/883207_6. July 31, 2017; Accessed: March 1, 2018.
Brasic J, Barnett J, and Zagzag D. Twenty-four-year unremitting course of facial tics in progressive catatonia complicating autism spectrum disorder. Scullin M. 1st World Congress on Tourette Syndrome and Tic Disorders. London: Frontiers Media SA; 2015.
Lafargue T, Brasic J. Neurodevelopmental hypothesis of schizophrenia: a central sensory disturbance. Med Hypotheses. 2000 Oct. 55(4):314-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Zervas IM, Theleritis C, Soldatos CR. Using ECT in schizophrenia: A review from a clinical perspective. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2011 Apr 12. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Lee JW. Neuroleptic-induced catatonia: clinical presentation, response to benzodiazepines, and relationship to neuroleptic malignant syndrome. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2010 Feb. 30 (1):3-10. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Kannabiran M, McCarthy J. The mental health needs of people with autism spectrum disorders. Psychiatry. 2009 Oct. 8(10):398-401.
Gaind GS, Rosebush PI, Mazurek MF. Lorazepam treatment of acute and chronic catatonia in two mentally retarded brothers. J Clin Psychiatry. 1994 Jan. 55(1):20-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Hare DJ, Malone C. Catatonia and autistic spectrum disorders. Autism. 2004 Jun. 8(2):183-95. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Vaquerizo-Serrano J, Salazar De Pablo G, Singh J, Santosh P. Catatonia in autism spectrum disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Psychiatry. 2021 Dec 15. 65 (1):e4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Baguley IJ. The excitatory:inhibitory ratio model (EIR model): An integrative explanation of acute autonomic overactivity syndromes. Med Hypotheses. 2008. 70(1):26-35. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Rasmussen SA, Mazurek MF, Rosebush PI. Catatonia: Our current understanding of its diagnosis, treatment and pathophysiology. World J Psychiatry. 2016 Dec 22. 6 (4):391-398. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Coconcea C. Zolpidem in treatment resistant catatonia: 2 case reports and literature review [abstract]. Schizophrenia Res. 2008. 98:134.
Uzbay IT. L-NAME precipitates catatonia during ethanol withdrawal in rats. Behav Brain Res. 2001 Feb 15. 119(1):71-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Kahlbaum KL. Catatonia. Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press; 1874/1973.
Stöber G, Seelow D, Rüschendorf F, Ekici A, Beckmann H, Reis A. Periodic catatonia: confirmation of linkage to chromosome 15 and further evidence for genetic heterogeneity. Hum Genet. 2002 Oct. 111 (4-5):323-30. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Meyer J, Huberth A, Ortega G, Syagailo YV, Jatzke S, Mössner R, et al. A missense mutation in a novel gene encoding a putative cation channel is associated with catatonic schizophrenia in a large pedigree. Mol Psychiatry. 2001 May. 6 (3):302-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Vesperini S, Papettia F, Pringuey D. Existe-t-il un lien entre catatonie et syndrome malin des neuroleptiques ? [Are catatonia and neuroleptic malignant syndrome related conditions?]. L’Encéphale. 2009.
Lee J, Teoh T, Lee TS. Catatonia and psychosis associated with sibutramine: a case report and pathophysiologic correlation. J Psychosom Res. 2008 Jan. 64(1):107-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Neto B. Catatonia with left temporal lesion on MRI: crossing borders. European Psychiatry. 2009. 24 supplement 1:S727.
Wachtel L. Catatonia in autism: Etiology, incidence and treatment [abstract]. European Psychiatry. 2008. 23:S402-S402.
Wachtel LE, Contrucci-Kuhn SA, Griffin M, Thompson A, Dhossche DM, Reti IM. ECT for self-injury in an autistic boy. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2009 Jul. 18(7):458-63. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Wachtel LE, Griffin M, Reti IM. Electroconvulsive Therapy in a Man With Autism Experiencing Severe Depression, Catatonia, and Self-Injury. J ECT. 2009 May 27. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Dhossche DM, Reti IM, Wachtel LE. Catatonia and autism: a historical review, with implications for electroconvulsive therapy. J ECT. 2009 Mar. 25(1):19-22. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Wachtel LE. Catatonia in autism and other neurodevelopmental disorders. European Psychiatry. 2009. 24, Supplement 1:S737.
Kakooza-Mwesige A, Wachtel LE, Dhossche DM. Catatonia in autism: implications across the life span. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2008 Sep. 17(6):327-35. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Gonzalez Oliveros R, Saracibar N, Gutierrez M, DNA Bank UPV/EHU, Munon T, Gonzalez-Pinto A. Catatonia due to a prion familial disease. Schizophrenia Research. 2009 Mar. 108, Issues 1-3:309-10.
Scozzafava J, Aladdin Y, Jickling G, Asdaghi N, Hussain M, Giuliani F. Stuporous catatonia and white matter lesions. J Clin Neurosci. 2009 Oct. 16(10):1328, 1386. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Blanc F, Berna F, Fleury M, Lita L, Ruppert E, Ferriby D, et al. [Inaugural psychotic events in multiple sclerosis?]. Rev Neurol (Paris). 2009 Sep 5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Le Foll J, Pelletier A. Symptômes psychiatriques d’une encéphalite paranéoplasique à anticorps antirécepteurs NMDA : à propos d’un cas [Psychiatric symptoms of a paraneoplastic anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis: A case report]. L'Encéphale. 2009.
Sienaert P, van Harten P, Rhebergen D. The psychopharmacology of catatonia, neuroleptic malignant syndrome, akathisia, tardive dyskinesia, and dystonia. Handb Clin Neurol. 2019. 165:415-428. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Nielsen N, Nielsen NB. [Malignant neuroleptic syndrome in a 15-year old girl after a single injection of a high-dose neuroleptic]. Ugeskr Laeger. 1991 Aug 5. 153(32):2239-40. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Winzeler RL. Latah in Southeast Asia: the history and ethnography of a culture-bound syndrome. Cambridge, Great Britain: Cambridge University Press; 1995.
Simons RC. Latah: a culture-specific elaboration of the startle reflex [film]. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Audiovisual Center; 1983.
Tanner CM, Chamberland J. Latah in Jakarta, Indonesia. Mov Disord. 2001 May. 16(3):526-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Francis A, Fink M, Appiani F, Bertelsen A, Bolwig TG, et al. Catatonia in Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition. J ECT. 2010 Dec. 26 (4):246-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Zisselman MH, Jaffe RL. ECT in the treatment of a patient with catatonia: consent and complications. Am J Psychiatry. 2010 Feb. 167 (2):127-32. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
van der Heijden FM, Tuinier S, Arts NJ, Hoogendoorn ML, Kahn RS, Verhoeven WM. Catatonia: disappeared or under-diagnosed?. Psychopathology. 2005 Jan-Feb. 38 (1):3-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Fink M, Bush G, Francis A. Catatonia: a treatable disorder, occasionally recognized. Directions in Psychiatry. 1993. 13(3):1-8.
Escobar R, Rios A, Montoya ID, et al. Clinical and cerebral blood flow changes in catatonic patients treated with ECT. J Psychosom Res. 2000 Dec. 49(6):423-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Chalasani P, Healy D, Morriss R. Presentation and frequency of catatonia in new admissions to two acute psychiatricadmission units in India and Wales. Psychol Med. 2005 Nov. 35(11):1667-75. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Peralta V, Cuesta MJ, Serrano JF, Mata I. The Kahlbaum syndrome: a study of its clinical validity, nosological status, and relationship with schizophrenia and mood disorder. Compr Psychiatry. 1997 Jan-Feb. 38(1):61-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Vorspan F, Cornic F, Mathis D, Cohen D, Lepine JP. Catatonia in a French forensic psychiatric facility: Frequency, prognosis and treatment [abstract]. European Psychiatry. 2008. 23:S332-S333.
Benegal V, Hingorani S, Khanna S. Idiopathic catatonia: validity of the concept. Psychopathology. 1993. 26(1):41-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Johnson J. Catatonia: the tension insanity. Br J Psychiatry. 1993 Jun. 162:733-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Rogers D. Catatonia: a contemporary approach. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1991 Summer. 3(3):334-40. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Guggenheim FG, Babigian HM. Catatonic schizophrenia: epidemiology and clinical course. A 7-year register study of 798 cases. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1974 Apr. 158(4):291-305. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Abrams R, Taylor MA. Catatonia. A prospective clinical study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1976 May. 33(5):579-81. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Ungvari GS, Leung SK, Ng FS, et al. Schizophrenia with prominent catatonic features ('catatonic schizophrenia'): I. Demographic and clinical correlates in the chronic phase. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2005 Jan. 29(1):27-38. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Carroll BT. Kahlbaum's catatonia revisited. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2001 Oct. 55(5):431-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Bonnot O, Tanguy ML, Consoli A, Cornic F, Graindorge C, Laurent C, et al. Does catatonia influence the phenomenology of childhood onset schizophrenia beyond motor symptoms?. Psychiatry Res. 2008 Apr 15. 158(3):356-62. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Cornic F, Consoli A, Tanguy ML, Bonnot O, Périsse D, Tordjman S, et al. Association of adolescent catatonia with increased mortality and morbidity: evidence from a prospective follow-up study. Schizophr Res. 2009 Sep. 113(2-3):233-40. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Haouzir S, Lemoine X, Desbordes M, Follet M, Meunier C, Baarir Z, et al. The role of coagulation marker fibrin D-dimer in early diagnosis of catatonia. Psychiatry Res. 2009 Jun 30. 168(1):78-85. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Krishna KR, Maniar RC, Harbishettar VS. A comparative study of "idiopathic catatonia’’ with catatonia in schizophrenia. Asian J Psych. 2011. 4:129-33.
Fischel T, Krivoy A, Brenner I, Weizman A. Priapism as an unusual manifestation of catatonia: a case report. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2009 Apr 30. 33(3):570. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Chouinard MJ, Nguyen DK, Clement JF, Bruneau MA. Catatonia induced by levetiracetam. Epilepsy Behav. 2006 Feb. 8(1):303-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Youssef NA, Benazzi F, Desan PH. Levofloxacin-induced catatonia. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2009 Jun 15. 33(4):741-2. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Reddy NN, Rao NP, Venkatasubramanian G, Arasappa R, Behere RV, Divakaran A, et al. Rimonabant-induced catatonia in schizophrenia: A case report. Obesity Research & Clinical Practice. 2009 Nov. 3 (4):237-239.
Rizos DV, Peritogiannis V, Gkogkos C. Catatonia in the intensive care unit. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2011 Jan-Feb. 33(1):e1-2. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Francis A. Catatonia: diagnosis, classification, and treatment. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2010 Jun. 12 (3):180-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Denysenko L, Nicolson SE. Cefoxitin and ciprofloxacin neurotoxicity and catatonia in a patient on hemodialysis. Psychosomatics. 2011 Jul-Aug. 52(4):379-83. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Anbarasan D, Campion P, Howard J. Drug-induced leukoencephalopathy presenting as catatonia. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2011 Jan-Feb. 33(1):85.e1-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Brasic JR, Andrews SR, Housain B, Alexander M, Mohamed M. Characterization of zaghrouta, an expression of happiness in the Middle East, a component of the differential diagnosis of psychogenic disorders. 2nd International Conference on Psychogenic Movement Disorders and Other Conversion Disorders. 2008 Apr. 78-79.
Brasic JR, Alexander M, Mohamed M. Differentiation of zaghrouta, an expression of happiness by women in the Middle East, from medical disease. Southern Medical Journal. 2003 Oct. 96(Suppl10):S35.
Jain S, Ferrando SJ. Manganese neurotoxicity presenting with depression, psychosis and catatonia. Psychosomatics. 2011 Jan-Feb. 52(1):74-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Kumar S, Sur S, Singh A. Mega cisterna magna associated with recurrent catatonia: a case report. Biol Psychiatry. 2011 Aug 15. 70(4):e19. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Spiegel DR, Varnell C Jr. A case of catatonia due to posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome treated successfully with antihypertensives and adjunctive olanzapine. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2011 May-Jun. 33(3):302.e3-5. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Keck PE and Arnold LM. The serotonin syndrome. Psychiatr Ann. 2000. 30:333–43.
Brasic JR, Barnett JY, Kaplan D, Sheitman BB, Aisemberg P, Lafargue RT, et al. Clomipramine ameliorates adventitious movements and compulsions in prepubertal boys with autistic disorder and severe mental retardation. Neurology. 1994 Jul. 44 (7):1309-12. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Brelinski L, Cottencin O, Guardia D, Anguill JD, Queyrel V, Hatron PY. Catatonia and systemic lupus erythematosus: a clinical study of three cases. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2009 Jan-Feb. 31(1):90-2. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Kalivas KK, Bourgeois JA. Catatonia after liver and kidney transplantation. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2009 Mar-Apr. 31(2):196-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Hsieh MH, Chen TC, Chiu NY, Chang CC. Zolpidem-related withdrawal catatonia: a case report. Psychosomatics. 2011 Sep-Oct. 52(5):475-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Lahutte B, Cornic F, Bonnot O, Consoli A, An-Gourfinkel I, Amoura Z. Multidisciplinary approach of organic catatonia in children and adolescents may improve treatment decision making. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2008 Mar 7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
England ML, Ongür D, Konopaske GT, Karmacharya R. Catatonia in psychotic patients: clinical features and treatment response. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2011 Spring. 23 (2):223-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Daniels J. Catatonia: clinical aspects and neurobiological correlates. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2009 Fall. 21 (4):371-80. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Sienaert P, Rooseleer J, De Fruyt J. Measuring catatonia: a systematic review of rating scales. J Affect Disord. 2011 Dec. 135(1-3):1-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Bush G, Fink M, Petrides G, Dowling F, Francis A. Catatonia. I. Rating scale and standardized examination. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1996 Feb. 93(2):129-36. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Larsen HH, Ritchie JC, McNutt MD, Musselman DL. Pulmonary embolism in a patient with catatonia: an old disease, changing times. Psychosomatics. 2011 Jul-Aug. 52(4):387-91. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Gjessing LR, Harding GF, Jenner FA, Johannessen NB. The EEG in three cases of periodic catatonia. Br J Psychiatry. 1967 Nov. 113 (504):1271-82. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Gjessing LR, Harding GF, Jenner FA, Johannessen NB. The EEG in three of Gjessing's patients with periodic catatonia. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1967 Nov. 23 (5):490. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
England ML, Ongür D, Konopaske GT, Karmacharya R. Catatonia in psychotic patients: clinical features and treatment response. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2011 Spring. 23(2):223-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Peralta V, Campos MS, de Jalon EG, Cuesta MJ. DSM-IV catatonia signs and criteria in first-episode, drug-naive, psychotic patients: psychometric validity and response to antipsychotic medication. Schizophr Res. 2010 May. 118(1-3):168-75. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Van Den Eede F, Van Hecke J, Van Dalfsen A, Van den Bossche B, Cosyns P, Sabbe BG. The use of atypical antipsychotics in the treatment of catatonia. Eur Psychiatry. 2005 Aug. 20(5-6):422-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Askenazy F, Dor E, Benoit M, Dupuis G, Serret S, Myquel M, et al. Catatonie chez une adolescente de 14 ans : traitement par clorazépam et carbamazépine et évolution à dix ans [Catatonia in a 14 year-old girl: Treatment with clonazepam and carbamazepine, a 10-year follow-up]. L’Encéphale. 2009.
Chang CH, Hsiao YL, Hsu CY, Chen ST. Treatment of catatonia with olanzapine: a case report. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2009 Nov 13. 33(8):1559-60. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Huang YC, Lin CC, Hung YY, Huang TL. Rapid relief of catatonia in mood disorder by lorazepam and diazepam. Biomed J. 2013 Jan-Feb. 36(1):35-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Lin CC, Huang TL. Lorazepam-diazepam protocol for catatonia in schizophrenia: A 21-case analysis. Compr Psychiatry. 2013 Jul 12. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Gupta A, Dhir A, Kumar A, Kulkarni SK. Protective effect of cyclooxygenase (COX)-inhibitors against drug-induced catatonia and MPTP-induced striatal lesions in rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2009 Dec. 94(2):219-26. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Krivoy A, Weizman A, Kimchi-Nesher S, Zemishlany Z, Fischel T. Recurrnet [sic] catatonia: Fluctuating between psychotic and catatonic dimensions [abstract]. European Psychiatry. 2008. 23:S328-S329.
Huang TL, Hung YY. Lorazepam reduces the serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor level in schizophrenia patients with catatonia. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2009 Feb 1. 33(1):158-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Grover S, Aggarwal M. Long-term maintenance lorazepam for catatonia: a case report. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2011 Jan-Feb. 33(1):82.e1-3. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Chanpattana W, Kramer BA, Kunigiri G, Gangadhar BN, Kitphati R, Andrade C. A Survey of the Practice of Electroconvulsive Therapy in Asia. J ECT. 2009 May 13. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Chanpattana W. A survey of the practice of electroconvulsive therapy in Asia. European Psychiatry. 2009. 24 Supplement 1:S770.
Wachtel LE, Kahng S, Dhossche DM, Cascella N, Reti IM. ECT for catatonia in an autistic girl. Am J Psychiatry. 2008 Mar. 165(3):329-33. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Moss L, Vaidya N. Does Comorbid Alcohol and Substance Abuse Affect Electroconvulsive Therapy Outcome in the Treatment of Mood Disorders?. J ECT. 2013 Jul 15. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Consoli A, Boulicot V, Cornic F, Fossati P, Barbeau M, Cohen D. Moderate clinical improvement with maintenance ECT in a 17-year-old boy with intractable catatonic schizophrenia. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2009 Apr. 18(4):250-4. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Slooter AJ, Braun KP, Balk FJ, et al. Electroconvulsive therapy for malignant catatonia in childhood. Pediatr Neurol. 2005 Mar. 32(3):190-2. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Rhoads JC, Votolato NA, Young JL, Gilchrist RH. The successful use of right unilateral ultra-brief pulse electroconvulsive therapy in an adolescent with catatonia. Brain Stimulation. 2009.
Nomoto H, Hatta K, Usui C, Ito M, Kita Y, Arai H. Vitamin K deficiency due to prolongation of antibiotic treatment and decrease in food intake in a catatonia patient. Psychosomatics. 2011 Sep-Oct. 52(5):486-7. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].
Beach SR, Gomez-Bernal F, Huffman JC, Fricchione GL. Alternative treatment strategies for catatonia: A systematic review. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2017 Sep. 48:1-19. [QxMD MEDLINE Link].

Media Gallery

Serotonin syndrome checklist.

of 1

Table. Causes of Catatonia by Category

Table. Causes of Catatonia by Category

Category	Causes
Neurologic conditions	Neuroleptic malignant syndrome^[28] Administration of agents that block postsynaptic dopamine receptors* Administration of sibutramine^[29](withdrawn from US market October 8, 2010) Withdrawal of lorazepam and other sedatives Akinetic-rigid syndrome Anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis^[4] Arachnoid cyst in right parietal region Astrocytoma Atrophy of left amygdala^[30] Autistic disorder^{[17, 10, 11, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 12, 13]} Basilar artery thrombosis Bilateral hemorrhagic lesions of temporal lobes Cerebellar catalepsy Cerebral hemorrhage Cerebral infarct Cerebrovascular disease Cortical venous thrombosis Central pontine myelinolysis Cortical basal ganglionic degeneration Dystonia Encephalitis (herpesvirus, Trypanosoma cruzi) Encephalopathy (Borrelia burgdorferi, HIV infection, Wernicke encephalopathy) Familial fatal insomnia^[37] Fibromuscular dysplasia with dissection of basilar artery Frontal lobotomy Head injury Huntington disease Hydrocephalus Hypopituitarism secondary to postpartum hemorrhage Idiopathic recurring stupor Inherited neurometabolic disorders Locked-in syndrome Meningitis, tuberculous Meningoencephalitis Multiple sclerosis^{[38, 39]} Neurosyphilis Nonconvulsive status epilepticus Pervasive developmental disorders^{[10, 11, 35]} Pallidoluysian atrophy Paraneoplastic encephalitis^[40] Parkinsonism Postencephalitic parkinsonism Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy Progressive supranuclear palsy Schizencephaly Seizures (complex with partial symptomatology) Stiff-man syndrome Stroke Stupor Subarachnoid hemorrhage Subdural hematoma Substance intoxication (alcohol, disulfiram, organic fluorides, phencyclidine) Subthalamic mesencephalic tumor Surgical removal of cerebellar tumor Tay-Sachs disease Temporal lobe epilepsy Tuberous sclerosis Tumors (corpus callosum, glioma of third ventricle, supraventricular diffuse pinealoma) Vegetative state Von Economo (lethargic) encephalitis Wilson disease
Psychiatric conditions	Acute stress disorder Anorexia nervosa Autistic disorder^[17] Brief reactive psychosis with catatonia Conversion disorder Hysteria Major depression, single episode with catatonic features Mood disorders Neuroleptic malignant syndrome^[28] Posttraumatic stress disorder Schizophrenia Substance intoxication (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine [“ecstasy”], alcohol, amphetamine, phencyclidine, substance withdrawal, hypnotic-sedative, lorazepam)
Psychological factors	Immigration Experiencing rejection of an expression of love Feelings of alienation in an unfamiliar country
Medical conditions	AIDS Acute intermittent porphyria Addison disease Bacterial septicemia Bronchorrhea Carcinoid tumors Diabetic ketoacidosis Encephalopathy (hepatic, HIV infection, Wernicke encephalopathy) Fever of unknown cause Heat stroke Hepatic failure Hereditary coproporphyria Homocystinuria Hypercalcemia Hyperparathyroidism Hyperthyroidism Hyponatremia Hypothermia Intestinal atony Malaria Neuroleptic malignant syndrome^[28] Poisoning (carbon monoxide, tetraethyl lead) Renal failure Substance intoxication (alcohol, cyclosporine, disulfiram, organic fluorides, phencyclidine) Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone (SIADH) Syphilis Systemic lupus erythematosus Thermal injury Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura Tuberculosis Typhoid fever Uremia Von Economo (lethargic) encephalitis
Obstetric conditions	Hypopituitarism secondary to postpartum hemorrhage
*Administration of agents that block postsynaptic dopamine receptors is associated with the onset of catatonia in some individuals.

Back to List

Author

James Robert Brasic, MD, MPH, MS, MA Assistant Professor, Russell H Morgan Department of Radiology and Radiological Science and Neurology, Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Assistant Professor, Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine

James Robert Brasic, MD, MPH, MS, MA is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, American Academy of Neurology, International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society, Society for Neuroscience, Society of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging

Disclosure: Serve(d) as a director, officer, partner, employee, advisor, consultant or trustee for: Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine; New York City Health and Hospitals/Bellevue, New York University Langone Health Serve(d) as a speaker or a member of a speakers bureau for: Society of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Maryland Regional Council of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Received research grant from: National Institutes of Health, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Intellectual & Developmental Disabilities Research Center (U54 HD079123) at the Kennedy Krieger Institute Received income in an amount equal to or greater than $250 from: Gerson Lehrman Group; Guidepost Received royalty from Medscape for other.

Coauthor(s)

Farzaneh Farhadi, MD Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Johns Hopkins Hospital

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Chief Editor

Selim R Benbadis, MD Professor, Director of Comprehensive Epilepsy Program, Departments of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Tampa General Hospital, University of South Florida Morsani College of Medicine

Selim R Benbadis, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Neurology, American Academy of Sleep Medicine, American Clinical Neurophysiology Society, American Epilepsy Society, American Medical Association

Disclosure: Serve(d) as a director, officer, partner, employee, advisor, consultant or trustee for: Bioserenity, Catalyst, Ceribell, Eisai, Jazz, LivaNova, Neurelis, Neuropace, SK Life Science Science, Sunovion, Takeda, UCB Serve(d) as a speaker or a member of a speakers bureau for: Catalyst, Jazz, LivaNova, Neurelis, SK Life Science, Stratus, UCB Received research grant from: Cerevel Therapeutics; Ovid Therapeutics; Neuropace; Jazz; SK Life Science, Xenon Pharmaceuticals, UCB, Marinus, Longboard.

Acknowledgements

Nestor Galvez-Jimenez, MD, MSc, MHA Chairman, Department of Neurology, Program Director, Movement Disorders, Department of Neurology, Division of Medicine, Cleveland Clinic Florida

Nestor Galvez-Jimenez, MD, MSc, MHA is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Neurology, American College of Physicians, and Movement Disorders Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Medscape Salary Employment

Acknowledgments

The research for this article was supported by the Essel Foundation; the National Alliance for Research on Schizophrenia and Depression (NARSAD); the Tourette Syndrome Association, Inc; the National Institutes of Health; and the Department of Psychiatry of Bellevue Hospital Center and the New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York. The cooperation of the Health and Hospitals Corporation of the City of New York is gratefully acknowledged.

Catatonia

Practice Essentials

Signs and symptoms

Diagnosis

Management

Background

Diagnostic criteria (DSM-5)

Case report

Pathophysiology and Etiology

Theories of pathogenesis

Comorbid psychiatric disorders

Dysfunction of neurotransmission

Inherited influences

Disorders associated with catatonia

Epidemiology

United States statistics

International statistics

Age-, sex-, and race-related demographics

Prognosis

Catatonia

Practice Essentials

Signs and symptoms

Diagnosis

Management

Background

Diagnostic criteria (DSM-5)

Case report

Pathophysiology and Etiology

Theories of pathogenesis

Comorbid psychiatric disorders

Dysfunction of neurotransmission

Inherited influences

Disorders associated with catatonia

Epidemiology

United States statistics

International statistics

Age-, sex-, and race-related demographics

Prognosis

References

Tables

Contributor Information and Disclosures

What would you like to print?