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Tricuspid Atresia Last Updated: January 19, 2006 |
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| Synonyms and related keywords: tricuspid atresia, TA, cyanotic congenital heart disease, tricuspid valve, right atrium, right ventricle, ventricular septal defects, atrial septal defects, cyanosis, hypoxemia, congestive heart failure, bacterial endocarditis, brain abscess, digital clubbing, polycythemia, Blalock-Taussig shunt, Glenn shunt, Fontan procedure, Fontan operation, transposition of the great vessels, pulmonary obstruction, d-transposed great arteries, FOG2 gene, polycythemia
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AUTHOR INFORMATION
| Section 1 of 11   |
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| Author: Mary C Mancini, MD, PhD, Professor of Surgery, Department of Surgery, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center Coauthor(s): Frank M Sheridan, MD, Cardiology, Providence Everett Medical Center |
| Mary C Mancini, MD, PhD, is a member of the following medical societies:
American Association for the Advancement of Science,
American Heart Association,
American Medical Association,
American Thoracic Society,
Association for Academic Surgery,
Association for Surgical Education,
International College of Surgeons,
International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation,
New York Academy of Sciences,
Phi Beta Kappa, and
Southern Thoracic Surgical Association |
| Editor(s): Park W Willis IV, MD, Associate Chief of Cardiology, Program Director, Adult Cardiovascular Disease Fellowship, Professor, Departments of Medicine and Pediatrics, University of North Carolina School of Medicine and Hospitals; Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD, Senior Pharmacy Editor, eMedicine;
Ronald J Oudiz, MD, Director of Pulmonary Hypertension, Associate Professor, Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA;
Amer Suleman, MD, Consultant in Electrophysiology and Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Cardiology, Medical City Dallas Hospital;
and Michael E Zevitz, MD, Assistant Professor of Medicine, Finch University of the Health Sciences, The Chicago Medical School; Consulting Staff, Private Practice |
Disclosure
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INTRODUCTION
| Section 2 of 11   |
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Background: Tricuspid atresia is the third most common form of cyanotic congenital heart disease, with a prevalence of 0.3-3.7% in patients with congenital heart disease. The deformity consists of a complete lack of formation of the tricuspid valve with absence of direct connection between the right atrium and right ventricle. Pathophysiology: Three types of tricuspid atresia are described, depending on the associated relationship of the great vessels. In type I, the great arteries are related normally; in type II, the great arteries are in a d-transposition relationship; and in type III, the great arteries are l-transposed. The types are further subclassified according to the presence or absence of ventricular septal defects and pulmonary valve pathology.
Other cardiovascular anomalies occur in 18% of patients with the deformity. Most of the associated anomalies relate to transposition of the great vessels. A persistent left superior vena cava anomaly is observed in 15% of patients.
With the absence of the tricuspid valve and no continuity between the right atrium and right ventricle, venous blood returning to the right atrium can exit only by an intra-atrial communication. Because of the obligatory right-to-left shunt at the level of the atria, saturation of the left atrial blood is diminished, whereas that of the right atrium is normal.
The intracardiac blood flow in tricuspid atresia further depends on the presence or absence of pulmonary arterial pathology. In the absence of pulmonary atresia or pulmonary valve stenosis, the volume of blood to the lungs may be normal or increased with normal oxygenation occurring, resulting in reduced cyanosis. In contrast, with accompanying pulmonary artery or valve stenosis, pulmonary blood flow is reduced, resulting in increased cyanosis.
Pulmonary obstruction occurs most often in patients with tricuspid atresia and normally related great arteries. Patients with d-transposed great arteries and tricuspid atresia generally have unobstructed pulmonary blood flow.
The left ventricle comprises most of the ventricular mass in tricuspid atresia. Because of volume overload (the left ventricle receives all the venous return) and persistent hypoxemia, decreased ventricular function may result in fibrosis, decreased ejection fraction, mitral annular dilatation, and mitral insufficiency. Frequency:
- In the US: The frequency of tricuspid atresia is 2.9% in autopsy series.
Mortality/Morbidity: Depending on the degree of obstruction and associated anomalies, tricuspid atresia may be lethal at birth. Without repair, the patient rarely survives to adulthood.
Race: No racial predilection is apparent.
Sex:
- Considering all forms of tricuspid atresia, no sexual predilection exists.
- Males present more frequently with transposed great vessels than females.
Age: The anomaly is congenital and is evident at birth.
History: Tricuspid atresia is usually detected in infancy because of presenting cyanosis, congestive heart failure, and growth failure. Parents provide a history of poor skin coloration ranging from pallor to frank cyanosis. Inability to complete a feeding session, frequent pauses during feeding, and/or frank anorexia usually characterize feeding difficulties. As a result, the infant demonstrates poor growth patterns. Respiratory difficulties are often reported as nasal flaring or muscle retractions.
Bacterial endocarditis and brain abscess are common findings in patients with tricuspid atresia. Consider these complications in children with histories of headaches, seizures, or neurologic deficits. Physical: - On inspection, cyanosis is the most common clinical feature of this lesion. The degree of cyanosis depends on the degree of pulmonary blood flow. Infants with associated pulmonary anatomy compromise and diminished pulmonary blood flow or infants who depend on a patent ductus arteriosus manifest pronounced cyanosis that worsens as the ductus begins to close. Patients with relatively normal or increased pulmonary blood flow manifest little cyanosis but more pronounced congestive heart failure.
- Digital clubbing is common in infants older than 3 months. Jugular venous pulsations and distention are common.
- The peripheral pulses and pulse volume may be decreased, normal, or increased. The left ventricular impulse is prominent because of volume overload. The apical impulse is hyperdynamic, with displacement to the left of the midclavicular line. A thrill may be felt at the left sternal border in patients with a restrictive ventricular septal defect or pulmonary valve stenosis. The liver may be large and pulsatile.
- A single first heart sound that may be increased in intensity is usually present. The second heart sound may be single or normally split. The intensity of this sound varies, depending on associated transposition of the great vessels. In normally related great vessels, the second heart sound may be of normal intensity. In transposed great vessels, the second sound is diminished. Cardiac murmurs are present in 80% of patients with tricuspid atresia. A holosystolic murmur that may have a crescendo and decrescendo quality is present, signifying blood flow through the ventricular septal defect. A continuous murmur may be present. Systemic-to-pulmonary arterial collaterals or arterial-to-pulmonary arterial anastomoses surgically created to improve pulmonary blood flow may cause this finding. A murmur of mitral insufficiency may also be present.
Causes: The cause is unknown. Although specific genetic causes of the malformation remain to be determined in humans, the FOG2 gene may be involved in the process. Mice in which the FOG2 gene is knocked out are born with tricuspid atresia. The significance of this finding and its applicability in humans requires further investigation.
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DIFFERENTIALS
| Section 4 of 11 |
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Atrial Septal Defect
Pulmonic Stenosis
Tricuspid Stenosis
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Patient Education
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Click here for patient education.
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Lab Studies:
- CBC count: Because of cyanosis in this population, polycythemia may be present.
- Prothrombin time and activated partial thromboplastin time: Findings from these studies may be abnormal secondary to the polycythemia.
Imaging Studies:
- Cardiomegaly is usually present, with a prominent right heart border that reflects enlargement of the right atrium.
- Pulmonary vascular markings may be increased. In 80% of patients, pulmonary vascular markings are diminished because of diminished pulmonary blood flow.
- A right aortic arch may be observed in 3-8% of cases.
- The diagnosis of tricuspid atresia can be reliably established with this noninvasive method.
- The basic anatomy, size of the atrial septal defect, relationship of the great vessels, degree of pulmonary blood flow, ventricular function, and valvular function can be easily ascertained using a combination of M-mode, 2-dimensional, and color-flow echocardiography.
Other Tests:
- Sinus rhythm is generally present, with tall P waves indicative of atrial enlargement.
- First-degree atrioventricular block may be observed.
- Because of the origin of the left bundle branch from a common bundle, the frontal plane QRS axis may be leftward or superior.
Procedures:
- In infants, the primary use of cardiac catheterization is to determine the source and reliability of pulmonary blood flow and, in particular, to assess the status of the patent ductus arteriosus. If a restrictive atrial septal defect is present, then balloon septostomy can be performed in this setting.
- In the older population, arteriography is used to define details important in surgical management such as number and relationship of vena cavae, size of the pulmonary arteries, pulmonary artery resistance, mitral valve competency, and definition of prior operative procedures.
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TREATMENT
| Section 6 of 11 |
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Medical Care: The following 3 considerations guide the treatment of infants with tricuspid atresia:
- The amount of pulmonary blood flow must be regulated in order to decrease hypoxemia or symptoms of congestive heart failure.
- Myocardial function, the integrity of the pulmonary vascular bed, and pulmonary vascular integrity must be preserved in order to optimize conditions for a later Fontan operation.
- The risk of bacterial endocarditis and thromboembolism must be minimized.
Routinely initiate prophylaxis against bacterial endocarditis in these infants and children when any invasive or dental procedure is contemplated. Follow the standard guidelines outlined by the American Heart Association for prophylaxis, which include oral or parenteral penicillin the day of the procedure and for 1 day after. In penicillin-allergic patients, consider appropriate substitution with erythromycin, vancomycin, or aminoglycosides. - Infants with decreased pulmonary blood flow
- This cohort encompasses most of the infants with tricuspid atresia.
- Marked cyanosis and hypoxemia characterize the clinical course. Acidemia may occur if the hypoxemia is profound, and death can ensue.
- Promptly treat infants with severe hypoxemia with prostaglandin E infusions in order to maintain patency of the ductus arteriosus and improve pulmonary blood flow.
- Infants with increased pulmonary blood flow
- These infants have an associated unrestrictive ventricular septal defect and transposed great vessels.
- They present with severe congestive heart failure and benefit from digitalis and diuretic therapy until an operative intervention can be undertaken to restrict the pulmonary blood flow.
- The intelligent application of palliative procedures to control the amount of pulmonary blood flow in this lesion improves the survival of infants with tricuspid atresia. With standard palliative procedures, 50% of these infants can survive into their teen years.
- Nonetheless, these children are at risk for developing complications of the disease, including paradoxical emboli, stroke, brain abscess, polycythemia, progressive cardiac dilatation, ventricular dysfunction, mitral valve insufficiency, and arrhythmias.
Surgical Care: Most patients with tricuspid atresia require some form of surgical treatment during the first year of life. Cyanosis with decreased pulmonary blood flow is the most common indication for surgical intervention. In this instance, a shunt procedure is undertaken to connect the systemic circulation to the pulmonary circulation. The shunt can be from the subclavian artery to the pulmonary artery (Blalock-Taussig shunt) or a cavopulmonary anastomosis (Glenn shunt). In patients with severe congestive heart failure indicative of increased pulmonary blood flow, pulmonary artery banding may be required to decrease the blood flow to the lungs and to assist with treatment of the accompanying congestive heart failure. - Recurrence of the cyanosis, progressive polycythemia, decreasing exercise tolerance, shunt failure, or increasing pulmonary obstruction are indications for a second operative procedure. A Fontan procedure is undertaken if the criteria are met; otherwise, a second palliative procedure should be performed.
- The Fontan operation excludes the right ventricle through the formation of a right atrial-to-pulmonary artery connection or an extracardiac cavopulmonary anastomosis using a synthetic graft. Ten parameters should be met in order to ensure a successful outcome.
- The candidate should be aged 4 years or older.
- A right atrium of normal volume and normal caval drainage should be present.
- Sinus rhythm should be present.
- Mean pulmonary artery pressure should be low (ie, <15 mm Hg), as should mean pulmonary arteriolar resistance.
- The pulmonary artery-to-aorta ratio should be greater than 0.75.
- Right ventricular function should be normal, with a competent atrioventricular valve.
- Previous shunt procedures should not exert impairing effects.
- The operative procedure connects the right atrium to the systemic pulmonary artery system at the outflow tract or at the bifurcation of the main trunk. Any atrial septal defect is closed.
Consultations: The treatment of these children must be coordinated with a pediatric cardiac surgeon, pediatric cardiologist, neonatologist, and pediatric pulmonologist/intensivist. Diet: Because of the volume overload present in these children and the use of diuretics, prescribe a low-sodium diet. Be attentive to replacement of appropriate electrolytes and the maintenance of nutrition to foster proper growth and development. Activity: Encourage activity in these children, who often limit activities secondary to the presence of dyspnea from congestive heart failure.
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MEDICATION
| Section 7 of 11 |
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Digitalis and diuretics are used to control the congestive heart failure present in patients with tricuspid atresia.
Drug Category: Antiarrhythmics, inotropic agents -- Improve ventricular contractility and maintain normal sinus rhythm. Drug Name
| Digoxin (Lanoxin, Lanoxicaps) -- Cardiac glycoside with direct inotropic effects in addition to indirect effects on the cardiovascular system. Acts directly on cardiac muscle, increasing myocardial systolic contractions. Indirect actions result in increased carotid sinus nerve activity and enhanced sympathetic withdrawal for any increase in mean arterial pressure. |
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| Adult Dose | 0.125-0.375 mg PO qd |
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| Pediatric Dose | 5-10 years: 20-35 mcg/kg PO
>10 years: 10-15 mcg/kg PO
Maintenance: 25-35% of PO loading dose qd| Contraindications | Documented hypersensitivity, beriberi heart disease, idiopathic hypertrophic subaortic stenosis, constrictive pericarditis, carotid sinus syndrome |
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| Interactions | Alprazolam, benzodiazepines, bepridil, captopril, cyclosporine, propafenone, propantheline, quinidine, diltiazem, aminoglycosides, oral amiodarone, anticholinergics, diphenoxylate, erythromycin, felodipine, flecainide, hydroxychloroquine, itraconazole, nifedipine, omeprazole, quinine, ibuprofen, indomethacin, esmolol, tetracycline, tolbutamide, and verapamil may increase serum levels; aminoglutethimide, antihistamines, cholestyramine, neomycin, penicillamine, aminoglycosides, oral colestipol, hydantoins, hypoglycemic agents, antineoplastic treatment combinations (including carmustine, bleomycin, methotrexate, cytarabine, doxorubicin, cyclophosphamide, vincristine, procarbazine), aluminum or magnesium antacids, rifampin, sucralfate, sulfasalazine, barbiturates, kaolin/pectin, and aminosalicylic acid may decrease serum levels |
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| Pregnancy |
C - Safety for use during pregnancy has not been established.
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| Precautions | Hypokalemia may reduce positive inotropic effect of digitalis; IV calcium may produce arrhythmias in digitalized patients; hypercalcemia predisposes patient to digitalis toxicity, and hypocalcemia can render digoxin ineffective until serum calcium levels are normal; magnesium replacement therapy must be instituted in patients with hypomagnesemia to prevent digitalis toxicity; patients diagnosed with incomplete AV block may progress to complete block when treated with digoxin; caution in hypothyroidism, hypoxia, and acute myocarditis |
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Drug Category: Diuretics -- Decrease circulating pulmonary blood volume.Drug Name
| Furosemide (Lasix) -- Increases excretion of water by interfering with chloride-binding cotransport system, which in turn inhibits sodium and chloride reabsorption in ascending loop of Henle and distal renal tubule.
Individualize dose to patient. Depending on response, administer at increments of 20-40 mg, no sooner than 6-8 h after previous dose, until desired diuresis occurs. When treating infants, titrate with 1-mg/kg/dose increments until a satisfactory effect is achieved.| Adult Dose | 20-80 mg/d PO/IV/IM; titrate up to 600 mg/d for severe edematous states |
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| Pediatric Dose | 1-2 mg/kg/dose PO; not to exceed 6 mg/kg/dose; do not administer >q6h; alternatively, 1 mg/kg IV/IM slowly under close supervision; not to exceed 6 mg/kg/dose |
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| Contraindications | Documented hypersensitivity, hepatic coma, anuria, state of severe electrolyte depletion |
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| Interactions | Metformin decreases concentrations; interferes with hypoglycemic effect of antidiabetic agents and antagonizes muscle-relaxing effect of tubocurarine; auditory toxicity appears to be increased with coadministration of aminoglycosides (hearing loss of varying degrees may occur); anticoagulant activity of warfarin may be enhanced when taken concurrently; increased plasma lithium levels and toxicity are possible when taken concurrently |
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| Pregnancy |
C - Safety for use during pregnancy has not been established.
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| Precautions | Perform frequent serum electrolyte, CO2, glucose, creatinine, uric acid, calcium, and BUN determinations during first few months of therapy and periodically thereafter |
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FOLLOW-UP
| Section 8 of 11 |
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Further Inpatient Care:
- Because pulmonary blood flow is of paramount importance in patients with tricuspid atresia, carefully monitor for signs of hypoxemia or fluid overload. After a palliative procedure, perform echocardiographic assessments to determine the patency of the shunt. Clinical evaluation is of benefit to determine instances of increased pulmonary blood flow that require treatment for ensuing congestive heart failure. Signs of hypoxemia in the form of rising hemoglobin levels must be monitored carefully because onset is insidious.
- Inpatient care after the Fontan procedure requires careful monitoring of pulmonary vascular resistance, heart rhythm, and fluid status. All efforts are made to maintain pulmonary vascular resistance as low as possible using supplemental oxygen and pulmonary vasodilators. Maintaining normal sinus rhythm in these patients optimizes cardiac output and ensures a favorable outcome. These patients characteristically develop pleural effusions after the procedure, which must be monitored carefully and removed in order to maximize oxygenation and decrease pulmonary vascular resistance.
- Carefully examine the child for signs of hepatic congestion. Hepatic congestion can occur secondary to the operative procedure and the subsequent volume overload. Treatment consists of diuretic therapy.
Further Outpatient Care:
- For patients who have undergone a palliative procedure, arrange careful follow-up to monitor pulmonary blood flow. Increasing polycythemia and cyanosis are indicative of poor shunt flow and are predictive of another procedure to prevent worsening hypoxemia.
- Increased pulmonary blood flow is detrimental in this population; monitor carefully, watching for signs of congestive heart failure.
- For patients who have had the Fontan procedure, maintain follow-up care to ensure a stable cardiac rhythm. Consider careful assessment of ventricular function on a routine basis. These patients may develop signs of congestive heart failure and congestive hepatopathy in the early postoperative course. In such instances, institute diuretic therapy early in order to preserve pulmonary blood flow and oxygenation.
In/Out Patient Meds:
- Consider digitalis to maintain sinus rhythm and improve cardiac contractility.
- Diuretics are often administered to treat and prevent pulmonary edema in these patients.
Complications:
- The complications from a shunt procedure can include too much pulmonary blood flow. The shunt can also cause damage to the pulmonary arteriolar tree.
- Complications from the Fontan procedure include pulmonary edema, congestive hepatopathy, pleural effusions, ascites, protein-losing enteropathy, and cardiac arrhythmias.
Prognosis:
- The 1-year survival rate after the Fontan operation is 85%; the 5-year survival rate is 78%.
- Because the procedure eliminates cyanosis, polycythemia and left ventricular volume overload are relieved; therefore, this population can be expected to live longer.
Patient Education:
- Counsel the parents of these children about dietary sodium restriction, as well as the signs and symptoms of hypoxemia and congestive heart failure.
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MISCELLANEOUS
| Section 9 of 11 |
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Medical/Legal Pitfalls:
- Because the lesion is inherently connected to pulmonary blood flow, take care in assessment of the pulmonary vasculature in order to direct therapy. For a successful Fontan procedure, the pulmonary vasculature must be normal and pulmonary vascular resistance must be low. Carelessness in evaluation of these parameters can lead to disastrous results.
- Carefully educate the families of children with tricuspid atresia with respect to the prognosis and long-term outcome of the disease even with palliation and more definitive procedures. Patients with tricuspid atresia do not have a normal life expectancy, and this information must be shared with the families.
- Review the potential complications of the anticipated operative procedures, and emphasize that none of the interventions is curative.
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PICTURES
| Section 10 of 11 |
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| Caption: Picture 1. Fontan procedure: Illustration of the atrial-to-pulmonary artery anastomosis.
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Picture Type: Graph |
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
| Section 11 of 11 |
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