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Otolaryngology and Facial Plastic Surgery > PEDIATRIC OTOLARYNGOLOGY
Juvenile Nasopharyngeal Angiofibroma
Article Last Updated: Feb 23, 2007
AUTHOR AND EDITOR INFORMATION
Section 1 of 8  
Author: Ted L Tewfik, MD, FRCS(C), Professor, Department of Otolaryngology, Director of Continuing Medical Education of Otolaryngology, McGill University Medical School; Director, Director of Professional Affairs of Otolaryngology, Department of Otolaryngology, Montreal Children's Hospital; Senior Staff, Montreal General Hospital and Royal Victoria Hospital
Ted L Tewfik is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, American College of Surgeons, American Society of Pediatric Otolaryngology, Canadian Medical Association, Canadian Society of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery, Quebec Medical Association, and Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada
Coauthor(s):
Mohammed A Al Garni, MBBS, Fellow, Department of Otolaryngology, McGill University, Canada
Editors: Ari J Goldsmith, MD, Program Director, Associate Professor, Department of Otolaryngology, Division of Pediatric Otolaryngology, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center; Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD, Senior Pharmacy Editor, eMedicine; Gregory C Allen, MD, Assistant Professor, Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of Colorado School of Medicine; Christopher L Slack, MD, Otolaryngology-Facial Plastic Surgery, Private Practice, Associated Coastal ENT; Medical Director, Treasure Coast Sleep Disorders; Arlen D Meyers, MD, MBA, Professor, Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of Colorado School of Medicine
Author and Editor Disclosure
Synonyms and related keywords:
JNA, angiofibroma, nasopharyngeal fibroma, bleeding fibroma of adolescence, fibroangioma, benign tumor, nonchromaffin paraganglionic cells of the terminal branches of the maxillary artery, extranasopharyngeal angiofibroma, nasal mass, orbital mass, proptosis, otitis due to eustachian tube blockage, zygomatic swelling, nonchromaffin paraganglionic cells of the terminal branches of the maxillary artery, tumor of the nasopharynx
Juvenile angiofibroma (JNA) is a benign tumor that tends to bleed and occurs in the nasopharynx of prepubertal and adolescent males.
History of the Procedure
Hippocrates described the tumor in the 5th century BC, but Friedberg first used the term angiofibroma in 1940. Other titles (eg, nasopharyngeal fibroma, bleeding fibroma of adolescence, fibroangioma) have also been used.
Frequency
JNA accounts for 0.05% of all head and neck tumors. A frequency of 1:5,000-1:60,000 in otolaryngology patients has been reported.
Sex: JNA occurs exclusively in males. Females with JNA should undergo genetic testing.
Age: Onset is most commonly in the second decade; range is 7-19 years. JNA is rare in patients older than 25 years.
Etiology
The lesion originates in close proximity to the posterior attachment of the middle turbinate, near the superior border of the sphenopalatine foramen.
A hormonal theory has been suggested because of the lesion's occurrence in adolescent males.
Other theories include a desmoplastic response of the nasopharyngeal periosteum or the embryonic fibrocartilage between the basiocciput and the basisphenoid.
Etiology from nonchromaffin paraganglionic cells of the terminal branches of the maxillary artery has also been suggested. Comparative genomic hybridization analysis of these tumors revealed deletions of chromosome 17, including regions for the tumor suppressor gene p53 as well as the Her-2/neu oncogene.
Pathophysiology
The tumor starts adjacent to the sphenopalatine foramen. Large tumors are frequently bilobed or dumbbell-shaped, with one portion of the tumor filling the nasopharynx and the other portion extending to the pterygopalatine fossa.
Anterior growth occurs under the nasopharyngeal mucous membrane, displacing it anteriorly and inferiorly toward the postnasal space. Eventually, the nasal cavity is filled on one side, and the septum deviates to the other side. Superior growth is directed toward the sphenoid sinus, which may also be eroded. The cavernous sinus may become invaded if the tumor advances further.
Lateral spread is directed toward the pterygopalatine fossa, bowing the posterior wall of the maxillary sinus. Later, the infratemporal fossa is invaded. Occasionally, the greater wing of the sphenoid may be eroded, exposing the middle fossa dura. Proptosis and optic nerve atrophy result if orbital fissures are encroached upon by the tumor. Extranasopharyngeal angiofibroma is extremely rare and tends to occur in older patients, predominately in females, but the tumor is less vascular and less aggressive than JNA.
Clinical
- Symptoms
- Nasal obstruction (80-90%) - Most frequent symptom, especially in initial stages
- Epistaxis (45-60%) - Mostly unilateral and recurrent; usually severe epistaxis that necessitates medical attention; diagnosis of angiofibroma in adolescent males to be ruled out
- Headache (25%) - Especially if paranasal sinuses are blocked
- Facial swelling (10-18%)
- Other symptoms - Unilateral rhinorrhea, anosmia, hyposmia, rhinolalia, deafness, otalgia, swelling of the palate, deformity of the cheek
- Signs
- Nasal mass (80%)
- Orbital mass (15%)
- Proptosis (10-15%)
- Other signs including serous otitis due to eustachian tube blockage, zygomatic swelling and trismus that denote spread of the tumor to the infratemporal fossa, decreasing vision due to optic nerve tenting (rare)
Differentials
- Other causes of nasal obstruction, (eg, nasal polyps, antrochoanal polyp, teratoma, encephalocele, dermoids, inverting papilloma, rhabdomyosarcoma, squamous cell carcinoma)
- Other causes of epistaxis, systemic or local
- Other causes of proptosis or orbital swellings
Imaging Studies
- Plain radiography
- View of the sinuses may demonstrate nasopharyngeal polyp.
- Bowing of the posterior wall of the maxillary sinus and maxillary sinus opacification is very suggestive of JNA.
- Newer radiographic modalities have surpassed plain films in usefulness.
- CT scanning
- Images demonstrate extent of the tumor (see Images 1-2).
- Extension to the sphenoid sinus, erosion of the greater sphenoidal wing, or invasion of the pterygomaxillary and infratemporal fossae is usually visualized.
- Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is indicated to delineate and define the extent of the tumor (see Image 3), especially in cases of intracranial involvement.
- Angiography shows the branches of the external carotid system to be the primary feeders (94%).
- The main supply comes from the internal maxillary artery, but ascending pharyngeal or vidian arteries may contribute to the blood supply.
- Unnamed branches from the internal carotid artery contribute to vascularity in rare instances.
- An angiofibroma before embolization can be seen in Image 4. An angiofibroma after embolization can be seen in Image 5.
Histologic Findings
On gross examination, the tumor is usually sessile, lobulated, rubbery, and red-pink to tan-gray in appearance. In rare cases, the tumor is polypoid or pedunculated.
Nasopharyngeal angiofibroma is usually encapsulated and composed of vascular tissue and fibrous stroma with coarse or fine collagen fibers. Vessels are thin-walled, lack elastic fibers, have absent or incomplete smooth muscle, and vary in appearance from stellate or staghorn to barely conspicuous because of stromal compression. Stromal cells have plump nuclei and tend to radiate around the vessels. An abundance of mast cells in the stroma and a lack of other inflammatory cells exist. Localized areas of myxomatous degeneration may be observed in the stroma.
When examined under electron microscope, stromal cells are mostly fibroblasts and show intensive immunostaining for vimentin. However, myofibroblasts may occur focally in connection with fibrotic areas and are characterized by the coexpression of vimentin and smooth muscle actin.
Staging
Different staging systems exist for nasopharyngeal angiofibroma. The 2 most commonly used are those of Sessions and Fisch.
- Classification according to Sessions
- Stage IA - Tumor limited to posterior nares and/or nasopharyngeal vault
- Stage IB - Tumor involving posterior nares and/or nasopharyngeal vault with involvement of at least 1 paranasal sinus
- Stage IIA - Minimal lateral extension into pterygomaxillary fossa
- Stage IIB - Full occupation of pterygomaxillary fossa with or without superior erosion of orbital bones
- Stage IIIA - Erosion of skull base (ie, middle cranial fossa/pterygoid base); minimal intracranial extension
- Stage IIIB - Extensive intracranial extension with or without extension into cavernous sinus
- Classification according to Fisch
- Stage I - Tumors limited to nasal cavity, nasopharynx with no bony destruction
- Stage II - Tumors invading pterygomaxillary fossa, paranasal sinuses with bony destruction
- Stage III - Tumors invading infratemporal fossa, orbit and/or parasellar region remaining lateral to cavernous sinus
- Stage IV - Tumors invading cavernous sinus, optic chiasmal region, and/or pituitary fossa
Medical therapy
- Hormonal therapy
- The testosterone receptor blocker flutamide was reported to reduce stage I and II tumors to 44%.
- Despite tumor reduction with hormones, this approach is not routinely used.
- Schuon et al reported on the immunohistochemical analysis of growth mechanisms in juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma. They concluded that juvenile angiofibroma (JNA) growth and vascularization are driven by factors released from stromal fibroblasts. Therefore, inhibition of these factors might be beneficial for the therapy of inoperable JNA.
- Radiotherapy
- Some centers have reported 80% cure rates with radiation therapy. However, concerns regarding potential effects of radiation make radiation therapy a nonuseful modality in most cases.
- Stereotactic radiotherapy (ie, Gamma knife) delivers a lower dose of radiation to surrounding tissues. However, most authorities reserve radiotherapy for intracranial disease or recurrent cases.
- Three-dimensional conformal radiotherapy in extensive JNA or intracranial extension provides a good alternative to conventional radiotherapy regarding disease control and radiation morbidity.
Surgical therapy
- A lateral rhinotomy, transpalatal, transmaxillary, or sphenoethmoidal route is used for small tumors (Fisch stage I or II).
- The infratemporal fossa approach is used when the tumor has a large lateral extension.
- The midfacial degloving approach, with or without a LeFort osteotomy, improves posterior access to the tumor.
- The facial translocation approach is combined with Weber-Ferguson incision and coronal extension for a frontotemporal craniotomy with midface osteotomies for access.
- An extended anterior subcranial approach facilitates en bloc tumor removal, optic nerve decompression, and exposure of the cavernous sinus.
- Intranasal endoscopic surgery is reserved for tumors limited to the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses. Some authors advocate its use for lesions with limited extension to the infratemporal fossa. Image-guided, endoscopic, laser-assisted removal has also recently been used.
Preoperative details
Preoperative embolization can be accomplished using reabsorbable microparticulate substances (eg, Gelfoam, polyvinyl alcohol, dextran microspheres) or nonabsorbable microparticulates (eg, Ivalon, Terbal). Limit blood loss during surgery is essential.
Excessive bleeding can occur. With improvement in diagnostic imaging techniques and preoperative embolization, the need for blood transfusion has been greatly reduced. Low-grade consumption coagulopathy may complicate small JNA and implies that preoperative coagulation screening may have a role in perioperative hemostasis.
Malignant transformation has been reported in 6 cases; 5 of these patients were treated with radiotherapy, according to a study by Malek et al.
Transient blindness has been reported as a result of embolization, but it is a rare occurrence.
Osteoradionecrosis and/or blindness due to optic nerve damage may occur with radiotherapy.
Fistula of the palate at the junction of the soft and hard palate may occur with the transpalatal approach but is prevented by preservation of the greater palatine vessels during flap elevation.
Anesthesia of the cheek is a frequent occurrence with the Weber-Ferguson incision.
The presence of tumor in the pterygoid fossa and basisphenoid, erosion of the clivus, intracranial extension, feeders from the internal carotid artery, a young age, and a residual tumour were risk factors associated with the recurrence of juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma.
| Media file 1:
Coronal CT scan of the lesion filling the left nasal cavity and ethmoid sinuses, blocking the maxillary sinus and deviating the nasal septum to the right side. |
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Media type: CT
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| Media file 2:
Axial CT scan of lesion involving the right nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses. Courtesy of J Otolaryngol 1999;28:145. |
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Media type: CT
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| Media file 3:
Coronal MRI scan showing extension of the lesion to the cavernous sinus. Courtesy of J Otolaryngol 1999;28:145. |
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Media type: MRI
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| Media file 4:
Angiogram depicting angiofibroma before embolization. Courtesy of J Otolaryngol 1999;28:145. |
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Media type: X-RAY
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| Media file 5:
Angiogram depicting angiofibroma after embolization. Courtesy of J Otolaryngol 1999;28:145. |
 | View Full Size Image | |
Media type: X-RAY
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Juvenile Nasopharyngeal Angiofibroma excerpt Article Last Updated: Feb 23, 2007
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