AUTHOR AND EDITOR INFORMATION

Section 1 of 11  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Basic Suturing Principles
• Simple Interrupted Sutures
• Running Sutures
• Mattress Sutures
• Buried Sutures
• Variations of Running Sutures
• Suture Removal and Alternative Methods of Wound Closure
• Multimedia
• References

INTRODUCTION

Section 2 of 11  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Basic Suturing Principles
• Simple Interrupted Sutures
• Running Sutures
• Mattress Sutures
• Buried Sutures
• Variations of Running Sutures
• Suture Removal and Alternative Methods of Wound Closure
• Multimedia
• References

As a method for closing cutaneous wounds, the technique of suturing is thousands of years old. Although suture materials and aspects of the technique have changed, the goals remain the same: closing dead space, supporting and strengthening wounds until healing increases their tensile strength, approximating skin edges for an aesthetically pleasing and functional result, and minimizing the risks of bleeding and infection.

Proper suturing technique is needed to ensure good results in dermatologic surgery. The postoperative appearance of a beautifully designed closure or flap can be compromised if an incorrect suture technique is chosen or if the execution is poor. Conversely, meticulous suturing technique cannot fully compensate for improper surgical technique. Poor incision placement with respect to relaxed skin tension lines, excessive removal of tissue, or inadequate undermining may limit the surgeon's options in wound closure and suture placement. Gentle handling of the tissue is also important to optimize wound healing.

The choice of suture technique depends on the type and anatomic location of the wound, the thickness of the skin, the degree of tension, and the desired cosmetic result. The proper placement of sutures enhances the precise approximation of the wound edges, which helps minimize and redistribute skin tension. Wound eversion is essential to maximize the likelihood of good epidermal approximation. Eversion is desirable to minimize the risk of scar depression secondary to tissue contraction during healing. Usually, inversion is not desirable, and it probably does not decrease the risk of hypertrophic scarring in an individual with a propensity for hypertrophic scars. The elimination of dead space, the restoration of natural anatomic contours, and the minimization of suture marks are also important to optimize the cosmetic and functional results.

In this article, the suture techniques used in cutaneous surgery are reviewed. The techniques of suture placement for each type of stitch are described, the rationale for choosing one suture technique over another are reviewed, and the advantages and disadvantages of each suture technique are discussed. Frequently, more than one suture technique is needed for optimal closure of a wound. After reading this article, the reader should have an understanding of how and why particular sutures are chosen and an appreciation of the basic methods of placing each type of suture.

For excellent patient education resources, visit eMedicine's Procedures Center. Also, see eMedicine's patient education articles Suture Care and Removing Stitches.

BASIC SUTURING PRINCIPLES

Section 3 of 11  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Basic Suturing Principles
• Simple Interrupted Sutures
• Running Sutures
• Mattress Sutures
• Buried Sutures
• Variations of Running Sutures
• Suture Removal and Alternative Methods of Wound Closure
• Multimedia
• References

Many varieties of suture material and needles are available to the cutaneous surgeon. The choice of sutures and needles is determined by the location of the lesion, the thickness of the skin in that location, and the amount of tension exerted on the wound. Regardless of the specific suture and needle chosen, the basic techniques of needle holding, needle driving, and knot placement remain the same.

Needle construction

The needle has 3 sections. The point is the sharpest portion and is used to penetrate the tissue. The body represents the mid portion of the needle. The swage is the thickest portion of the needle and the portion to which the suture material is attached. In cutaneous surgery, 2 main types of needles are used: cutting and reverse cutting. Both needles have a triangular body. A cutting needle has a sharp edge on the inner curve of the needle that is directed toward the wound edge. A reverse cutting needle has a sharp edge on the outer curve of the needle that is directed away from the wound edge, which reduces the risk of the suture pulling through the tissue. For this reason, the reverse cutting needle is used more often than the cutting needle in cutaneous surgery (see Image 1).

Suture placement

A needle holder is used to grasp the needle at the distal portion of the body, one half to three quarters of the distance from the tip of the needle, depending on the surgeon's preference. The needle holder is tightened by squeezing it until the first ratchet catches. The needle holder should not be tightened excessively because damage to both the needle and the needle holder may result. The needle is held vertically and longitudinally perpendicular to the needle holder (see Image 2).

Incorrect placement of the needle in the needle holder may result in a bent needle, difficult penetration of the skin, and/or an undesirable angle of entry into the tissue. The needle holder is held by placing the thumb and the fourth finger into the loops and by placing the index finger on the fulcrum of the needle holder to provide stability (see Image 3). Alternatively, the needle holder may be held in the palm to increase dexterity (see Image 4).

The tissue must be stabilized to allow suture placement. Depending on the surgeon's preference, toothed or untoothed forceps or skin hooks may be used to gently grasp the tissue. Excessive trauma to the tissue being sutured should be avoided to reduce the possibility of tissue strangulation and necrosis. Forceps are necessary for grasping the needle as it exits the tissue after a pass. Prior to removing the needle holder, grasping and stabilizing the needle is important. This maneuver decreases the risk of losing the needle in the dermis or subcutaneous fat, and it is especially important if small needles are used in areas such as the back, where large needle bites are necessary for proper tissue approximation.

The needle should always penetrate the skin at a 90° angle, which minimizes the size of the entry wound and promotes eversion of the skin edges. The needle should be inserted 1-3 mm from the wound edge, depending on skin thickness. The depth and angle of the suture depends on the particular suturing technique. In general, the 2 sides of the suture should become mirror images, and the needle should also exit the skin perpendicular to the skin surface.

Knot tying

Once the suture is satisfactorily placed, it must be secured with a knot. The instrument tie is used most commonly in cutaneous surgery. The square knot is traditionally used. First, the tip of the needle holder is rotated clockwise around the long end of the suture material for 2 complete turns. The tip of the needle holder is used to grasp the short end of the suture. The short end of the suture is pulled through the loops of the long end by crossing the hands, such that the 2 ends of the suture material are situated on opposite sides of the suture line. The needle holder is rotated counterclockwise once around the long end of the suture. The short end is grasped with the needle holder tip, and the short end is pulled through the loop again.

The suture should be tightened sufficiently to approximate the wound edges without constricting the tissue. Sometimes, leaving a small loop of suture after the second throw is helpful. This reserve loop allows the stitch to expand slightly and is helpful in preventing the strangulation of tissue because the tension exerted on the suture increases with increased wound edema. Depending on the surgeon's preference, 1-2 additional throws may be added.

Properly squaring successive ties is important. That is, each tie must be laid down perfectly parallel to the previous tie. This procedure is important in preventing the creation of a granny knot, which tends to slip and is inherently weaker than a properly squared knot. When the desired number of throws is completed, the suture material may be cut (if interrupted stitches are used), or the next suture may be placed (see Image 5).

SIMPLE INTERRUPTED SUTURES

Section 4 of 11  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Basic Suturing Principles
• Simple Interrupted Sutures
• Running Sutures
• Mattress Sutures
• Buried Sutures
• Variations of Running Sutures
• Suture Removal and Alternative Methods of Wound Closure
• Multimedia
• References

Technique

The most commonly used and versatile suture in cutaneous surgery is the simple interrupted suture. This suture is placed by inserting the needle perpendicular to the epidermis, traversing the epidermis and the full thickness of the dermis, and exiting perpendicular to the epidermis on the opposite side of the wound. The 2 sides of the stitch should be symmetrically placed in terms of depth and width. In general, the suture should have a flask-shaped configuration, that is, the stitch should be wider at its base (dermal side) than at its superficial portion (epidermal side). If the stitch encompasses a greater volume of tissue at the base than at its apex, the resulting compression at the base forces the tissue upward and promotes eversion of the wound edges. This maneuver decreases the likelihood of creating a depressed scar as the wound retracts during healing (see Image 6).

In general, tissue bites should be evenly placed so that the wound edges meet at the same level to minimize the possibility of mismatched wound-edge heights (ie, stepping). However, the size of the bite taken from the 2 sides of the wound can be deliberately varied by modifying the distance of the needle insertion site from the wound edge, the distance of the needle exit site from the wound edge, and the depth of the bite taken. The use of differently sized needle bites on each side of the wound can correct preexisting asymmetry in edge thickness or height. Small bites can be used to precisely coapt wound edges. Large bites can be used to reduce wound tension. Proper tension is important to ensure precise wound approximation while preventing tissue strangulation. Image 7 shows a line of interrupted sutures.

Uses

Compared with running sutures, interrupted sutures are easy to place, have greater tensile strength, and have less potential for causing wound edema and impaired cutaneous circulation. Interrupted sutures also allow the surgeon to make adjustments as needed to properly align wound edges as the wound is sutured.

Disadvantages of interrupted sutures include the length of time required for their placement and the greater risk of crosshatched marks (ie, train tracks) across the suture line. The risk of crosshatching can be minimized by removing sutures early to prevent the development of suture tracks.

RUNNING SUTURES

Section 5 of 11  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Basic Suturing Principles
• Simple Interrupted Sutures
• Running Sutures
• Mattress Sutures
• Buried Sutures
• Variations of Running Sutures
• Suture Removal and Alternative Methods of Wound Closure
• Multimedia
• References

Simple running sutures

Technique

The simple running suture is an uninterrupted series of simple interrupted sutures. The suture is started by placing a simple interrupted stitch, which is tied but not cut. A series of simple sutures are placed in succession without tying or cutting the suture material after each pass. Sutures should be evenly spaced, and tension should be evenly distributed along the suture line. The line of stitches is completed by tying a knot after the last pass at the end of the suture line. The knot is tied between the tail end of the suture material where it exits the wound and the loop of the last suture placed. Image 8 shows a running suture line.

Uses

Running sutures are useful for long wounds in which wound tension has been minimized with properly placed deep sutures and in which approximation of the wound edges is good. This type of suture may also be used to secure a split- or full-thickness skin graft. Theoretically, less scarring occurs with running sutures compared with interrupted sutures because fewer knots are made with simple running sutures; however, the number of needle insertions remains the same.

Advantages of the simple running suture include quicker placement and more rapid reapproximation of wound edges, compared with simple interrupted sutures. Disadvantages include possible crosshatching, the risk of dehiscence if the suture material ruptures, difficulty in making fine adjustments along the suture line, and puckering of the suture line when the stitches are placed in thin skin.

Running locked sutures

Technique

The simple running suture may be locked or left unlocked. The first knot of a running locked suture is tied as in a traditional running suture and may be locked by passing the needle through the loop preceding it as each stitch is placed. This suture is also known as the baseball stitch (see Image 9) because of the final appearance of the running locked suture line.

Uses

Locked sutures have increased tensile strength; therefore, they are useful in wounds under moderate tension or in those requiring additional hemostasis because of oozing from the skin edges. Running locked sutures have an increased risk of impairing the microcirculation surrounding the wound, and they can cause tissue strangulation if placed too tightly. Therefore, this type of suture should be used only in areas with good vascularization. In particular, the running locked suture may be useful on the scalp or in the postauricular sulcus, especially when additional hemostasis is needed.

MATTRESS SUTURES

Section 6 of 11  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Basic Suturing Principles
• Simple Interrupted Sutures
• Running Sutures
• Mattress Sutures
• Buried Sutures
• Variations of Running Sutures
• Suture Removal and Alternative Methods of Wound Closure
• Multimedia
• References

Vertical mattress sutures

Technique

The vertical mattress suture is a variation of the simple interrupted suture. It consists of a simple interrupted stitch placed wide and deep into the wound edge and a second more superficial interrupted stitch placed closer to the wound edge and in the opposite direction. The width of the stitch should be increased in proportion to the amount of tension on the wound. That is, the higher the tension, the wider the stitch (see Image 10).

Uses

A vertical mattress suture is especially useful in maximizing wound eversion, reducing dead space, and minimizing tension across the wound. One of the disadvantages of this suture is crosshatching. The risk of crosshatching is greater because of increased tension across the wound and the 4 entry and exit points of the stitch in the skin. The recommended time for removal of this suture is 5-7 days (before formation of epithelial suture tracks is complete) to reduce the risk of scarring. If the suture must be left in place longer, bolsters may be placed between the suture and the skin to minimize contact. The use of bolsters minimizes strangulation of the tissues when the wound swells in response to postoperative edema. Placing each stitch precisely and taking symmetric bites is especially important with this suture.

Half-buried vertical mattress sutures

Technique

The half-buried vertical mattress suture is a modification of the vertical mattress suture and eliminates 2 of the 4 entry points, thereby reducing scarring. The half-buried vertical mattress suture is placed in the same manner as the vertical mattress suture, except that the needle penetrates the skin to the level of the deep part of the dermis on one side of the wound, takes a bite in the deep part of the dermis on the opposite side of the wound without exiting the skin, crosses back to the original side of the wound, and exits the skin. Entry and exit points therefore are kept on one side of the wound.

Uses

The half-buried vertical mattress is used in cosmetically important areas such as the face.

Pulley sutures

Technique

The pulley suture is a modification of the vertical mattress suture. When pulley sutures are used, a vertical mattress suture is placed, the knot is left untied, and the suture is looped through the external loop on the other side of the incision and pulled across. At this point, the knot is tied. This new loop functions as a pulley, directing tension away from the other strands (see Image 11).

Uses

The pulley suture facilitates greater stretching of the wound edges and is used when additional wound closure strength is desired.

Far-near near-far modified vertical mattress sutures

Technique

Another stitch that serves the same function as the pulley suture is the far-near near-far modification of the vertical mattress suture. The first loop is placed approximately 4-6 mm from the wound edge on the far side and approximately 2 mm from the wound edge on the near side. The suture crosses the suture line and reenters the skin on the original side at 2 mm from the wound edge on the near side. The loop is completed, and the suture exits the skin on the opposite side 4-6 mm away from the wound edge on the far side. This placement creates a pulley effect (see Image 12).

Uses

The pulley suture is useful when tissue expansion is desired, and it may be used intraoperatively for this purpose. The suture is also useful when beginning the closure of a wound that is under significant tension. By placing pulley stitches first, the wound edges can be approximated, thereby facilitating the placement of buried sutures. When wound closure is complete, the pulley stitches may be either left in place or removed if wound tension has been adequately distributed after placement of the buried and surface sutures.

Horizontal mattress suture

Technique

The horizontal mattress suture is placed by entering the skin 5 mm to 1 cm from the wound edge. The suture is passed deep in the dermis to the opposite side of the suture line and exits the skin equidistant from the wound edge (in effect, a deep simple interrupted stitch). The needle reenters the skin on the same side of the suture line 5 mm to 1 cm lateral of the exit point. The stitch is passed deep to the opposite side of the wound where it exits the skin and the knot is tied (see Image 13).

Uses

The horizontal mattress suture is useful for wounds under high tension because it provides strength and wound eversion. This suture may also be used as a stay stitch to temporarily approximate wound edges, allowing placement of simple interrupted or subcuticular stitches. The temporary stitches are removed after the tension is evenly distributed across the wound.

Horizontal mattress sutures may be left in place for a few days if wound tension persists after placement of the remaining stitches. In areas of extremely high tension at risk for dehiscence, horizontal mattress sutures may be left in place even after removal of the superficial skin sutures. However, they have a high risk of producing suture marks if left in place for longer than 7 days.

Horizontal mattress sutures may be placed prior to a proposed excision as a skin expansion technique to reduce tension. Improved eversion may be achieved with this stitch in wounds without significant tension by using small bites and a fine suture.

In addition to the risk of suture marks, horizontal sutures have a high risk of tissue strangulation and wound edge necrosis if tied too tightly. Taking generous bites, using bolsters, and cinching the suture only as tightly as necessary to approximate the wound edges may decrease the risk, as does removing the sutures as early as possible. Placing sutures at a greater distance from the wound edge facilitates their removal.

BURIED SUTURES

Section 7 of 11  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Basic Suturing Principles
• Simple Interrupted Sutures
• Running Sutures
• Mattress Sutures
• Buried Sutures
• Variations of Running Sutures
• Suture Removal and Alternative Methods of Wound Closure
• Multimedia
• References

Half-buried horizontal sutures or tip stitches

Technique

The half-buried horizontal suture or tip stitch begins on the side of the wound on which the flap is to be attached. The suture is passed through the dermis of the wound edge to the dermis of the flap tip. The needle is passed laterally in the same dermal plane of the flap tip, exits the flap tip, and reenters the skin to which the flap is to be attached. The needle is directed perpendicularly and exits the skin; then, the knot is tied (see Image 14).

Uses

The half-buried horizontal suture or tip stitch is used primarily to position the corners and tips of flaps and to perform M-plasties and V-Y closures.

Absorbable buried sutures

Absorbable buried sutures are used as part of a layered closure in wounds under moderate-to-high tension. Buried sutures provide support to the wound and reduce tension on the wound edges, allowing better epidermal approximation of the wound. They are also used to eliminate dead space, or they are used as anchor sutures to fix the overlying tissue to the underlying structures.

Dermal-subdermal sutures

Technique

The suture is placed by inserting the needle parallel to the epidermis at the junction of the dermis and the subcutis. The needle curves upward and exits in the papillary dermis, again parallel to the epidermis. The needle is inserted parallel to the epidermis in the papillary dermis on the opposing edge of the wound, curves down through the reticular dermis, and exits at the base of the wound at the interface between the dermis and the subcutis and parallel to the epidermis. The knot is tied at the base of the wound to minimize the possibility of tissue reaction and extrusion of the knot. If the suture is placed more superficially in the dermis at 2-4 mm from the wound edge, eversion is increased.

Uses

A buried dermal-subdermal suture maximizes wound eversion. It is placed so that the suture is more superficial away from the wound edge.

Buried horizontal mattress suture

Technique

The buried horizontal mattress suture is a purse-string suture. The suture must be placed in the mid-to-deep part of the dermis to prevent the skin from tearing. If tied too tightly, the suture may strangulate the approximated tissue.

Uses

The buried horizontal mattress suture is used to eliminate dead space, reduce the size of a defect, or reduce tension across wounds.

VARIATIONS OF RUNNING SUTURES

Section 8 of 11  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Basic Suturing Principles
• Simple Interrupted Sutures
• Running Sutures
• Mattress Sutures
• Buried Sutures
• Variations of Running Sutures
• Suture Removal and Alternative Methods of Wound Closure
• Multimedia
• References

Running horizontal mattress sutures

Technique

A simple suture is placed, and the knot is tied but not cut. A continuous series of horizontal mattress sutures is placed, with the final loop tied to the free end of the suture material.

Uses

The running horizontal mattress suture is used for skin eversion. It is useful in areas with a high tendency for inversion, such as the neck. It can also be useful for reducing the spread of facial scars. If the sutures are tied too tightly, tissue strangulation is a risk.

Running subcuticular sutures

Technique

The running subcuticular suture is a buried form of the running horizontal mattress suture. It is placed by taking horizontal bites through the papillary dermis on alternating sides of the wound. No suture marks are visible, and the suture may be left in place for several weeks (see Image 15).

Uses

The running subcuticular suture is valuable in areas in which the tension is minimal, the dead space has been eliminated, and the best possible cosmetic result is desired. Because the epidermis is penetrated only at the beginning and end of the suture line, the subcuticular suture effectively eliminates the risk of crosshatching. The suture does not provide significant wound strength, although it does precisely approximate the wound edges. Therefore, the running subcuticular suture is best reserved for wounds in which the tension has been eliminated with deep sutures, and the wound edges are of approximately equal thicknesses.

Running subcutaneous sutures

Technique

The running subcutaneous suture begins with a simple interrupted subcutaneous suture, which is tied but not cut. The suture is looped through the subcutaneous tissue by successively passing through the opposite sides of the wound. The knot is tied at the opposite end of the wound by knotting the long end of the suture material to the loop of the last pass that was placed.

Uses

The running subcutaneous suture is used to close the deep portion of surgical defects under moderate tension. It is used in place of buried dermal sutures in large wounds when a quick closure is desired. Disadvantages of running subcutaneous sutures include the risk of suture breakage and the formation of dead space beneath the skin surface.

SUTURE REMOVAL AND ALTERNATIVE METHODS OF WOUND CLOSURE

Section 9 of 11  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Basic Suturing Principles
• Simple Interrupted Sutures
• Running Sutures
• Mattress Sutures
• Buried Sutures
• Variations of Running Sutures
• Suture Removal and Alternative Methods of Wound Closure
• Multimedia
• References

Suture removal

Sutures should be removed within 1-2 weeks of their placement, depending on the anatomic location. Prompt removal reduces the risk of suture marks, infection, and tissue reaction. The average wound usually achieves approximately 8% of its expected tensile strength 1-2 weeks after surgery. To prevent dehiscence and spread of the scar, sutures should not be removed too soon.

As a general rule, the greater the tension across a wound, the longer the sutures should remain in place. As a guide, on the face, sutures should be removed in 5-7 days; on the neck, 7 days; on the scalp, 10 days; on the trunk and upper extremities, 10-14 days; and on the lower extremities, 14-21 days. Sutures in wounds under greater tension may need to be left in place slightly longer. Buried sutures, which are placed with absorbable suture material, are left in place because they dissolve.

Proper suture removal technique is important to maintain good results after sutures are properly selected and executed. Sutures should be gently elevated with forceps, and one side of the suture should be cut. Then, the suture is gently grasped by the knot and gently pulled toward the wound or suture line until the suture material is completely removed. If the suture is pulled away from the suture line, the wound edges may separate. Steri-Strips may be applied with a tissue adhesive to provide continued supplemental wound support after the sutures are removed.

Alternative methods of wound closure

Steri-Strips

Wound closure tapes, or Steri-Strips, are reinforced microporous surgical adhesive tape. Steri-Strips are used to provide extra support to a suture line, either when running subcuticular sutures are used or after sutures are removed. Wound closure tapes may reduce spreading of the scar if they are kept in place for several weeks after suture removal. Often, they are used with a tissue adhesive. These tapes are rarely used for primary wound closure.

Staples

Stainless steel staples are frequently used in wounds under high tension, including wounds on the scalp and trunk. Advantages of staples include quick placement, minimal tissue reaction, low risk of infection, and strong wound closure. Disadvantages include less precise wound edge alignment and cost.

Tissue adhesive

Superglues that contain acrylates may be applied to superficial wounds to block pinpoint skin hemorrhages and to precisely coapt wound edges. The usefulness of rapidly polymerizing plastics is limited because of the difficulty in handling the adhesive and the potential for tissue toxicity and inflammation. The use of tissue adhesives in dermatologic surgery is still evolving. As new and improved products are developed, the use of adhesives for skin closure may increase.

Barbed sutures

A barbed suture has been developed and is being evaluated for its efficacy in cutaneous surgery. The proposed advantage of such a suture is the avoidance of suture knots. Suture knots theoretically may be a nidus for infection, are tedious to place, may place ischemic demands on tissue, and may extrude following surgery. A randomized controlled trial comparing a barbed suture with conventional closure using 3-0 polydioxanone suture suggests that a barbed suture has a safety and cosmesis profile similar to the conventional suture when used to close cesarean delivery wounds. Additional studies are likely needed before the barbed suture is accepted for widespread use.

MULTIMEDIA

Section 10 of 11  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Basic Suturing Principles
• Simple Interrupted Sutures
• Running Sutures
• Mattress Sutures
• Buried Sutures
• Variations of Running Sutures
• Suture Removal and Alternative Methods of Wound Closure
• Multimedia
• References

Media file 1:  Diagram of a needle.
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Media file 2:  The needle is placed vertically and longitudinally perpendicular to the needle holder.
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Media file 3:  The needle holder is held through the loops between the thumb and the fourth finger, and the index finger rests on the fulcrum of the instrument.
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Media file 4:  The needle holder is held in the palm, allowing greater dexterity.
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Media file 5:  Knot tying.
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Media file 6:  Simple interrupted suture placement. Bottom right image shows a flask-shaped stitch, which maximizes eversion.
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Media file 7:  Line of interrupted sutures.
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Media file 8:  Running suture line.
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Media file 9:  Running locked suture.
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Media file 10:  Vertical mattress suture.
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Media file 11:  Pulley stitch, type 1.
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Media file 12:  Far-near near-far pulley stitch.
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Media file 13:  Horizontal mattress suture.
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Media file 14:  Tip stitch.
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Media file 15:  Subcuticular stitch. The skin surface remains intact along the length of the suture line.
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REFERENCES

Section 11 of 11

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Basic Suturing Principles
• Simple Interrupted Sutures
• Running Sutures
• Mattress Sutures
• Buried Sutures
• Variations of Running Sutures
• Suture Removal and Alternative Methods of Wound Closure
• Multimedia
• References

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• Nitsch A, Pabyk A, Honig JF, et al. Cellular, histomorphologic, and clinical characteristics of a new octyl-2-cyanoacrylate skin adhesive. Aesthetic Plast Surg. Jan-Feb 2005;29(1):53-8. [Medline].
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• Richey ML, Roe SC. Assessment of knot security in continuous intradermal wound closures. J Surg Res. Feb 2005;123(2):284-8. [Medline].
• Skaria AM. The buried running dermal subcutaneous suture technique with a tacking knot. Dermatol Surg. Aug 2002;28(8):739-41. [Medline].
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Article Last Updated: Feb 1, 2007