AUTHOR AND EDITOR INFORMATION

Section 1 of 11  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Acknowledgments
• Multimedia
• References

INTRODUCTION

Section 2 of 11  

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• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Acknowledgments
• Multimedia
• References

Background

Cholinergic urticaria is one of the physical urticarias brought on by a physical stimulus. Although the physical stimulus might be considered to be heat, the actual precipitating cause is sweating.

Pathophysiology

Mast cells seem to be critically involved; cholinergic urticaria has been used to study mast cell activity. Serum histamine, the principal mediator, rises in concentration with experimentally induced exercise, accompanied by eosinophil and neutrophil chemotactic factors and tryptase. A reduction of the alpha 1-antichymotrypsin level, as seen in some other forms of urticaria, is present, and the eruption is improved with danazol. These findings have prompted some to argue for proteases as a cause of histamine release.

Although mast cell release seems to be involved, less eosinophilic major basic protein is present than in many other forms of urticaria.

Several factors, including an increased incidence in patients with atopic dermatitis, a marked sensitivity in some patients with anaphylactic and anaphylactoid reactions, and an immediate reactivity in some patients, suggest an allergic basis. One report showed positive immediate sensitivity to sweat with passive transfer. Some investigators, but not others, have reported positive passive transfer. Another group has recently reported a follicular pattern of cholinergic urticaria in sweat-sensitized patients but not in patients without prominent sensitivity.

Autonomic functions are normal. One patient developed an accentuated response in a positive copper test site, perhaps from either vasodilatation or augmentation of neurologic stimulation. In one study, muscarinic receptors were reduced, but binding was normal. Thermography ostensibly shows the areas of involvement.

Elevation of histamine levels can be detected at 5 minutes after exercise, reaching a peak of 25 ng/mL at 30 minutes. Treadmill exercise produces a sensation of generalized skin warmth, followed by pruritus; erythema; urticaria; and transient respiratory tract symptoms consisting of shortness of breath, wheezing, or both. Statistically significant decreases were observed in 1 second forced expiratory volumes, maximal midexpiratory flow rates, and specific conductance. An increase in residual volume was also detected.

Frequency

United States

The prevalence of cholinergic urticaria is variable. Moore-Robinson and Warin found that about 0.2% of patients in an outpatient dermatologic clinic had cholinergic urticaria. However, many published series have found cholinergic urticaria to be common. The prevalence is definitely higher in persons with urticaria; cholinergic urticaria affected 11% of a population with chronic urticaria in one study, and 5.1% of persons with urticaria in another study. The prevalence is higher in persons with atopic conditions (eg, asthma, rhinitis, atopic eczema), but this is by no means exclusive. A rare familial form of the disease is also reported.

Sex

Cholinergic urticaria occurs in both men and women, but it seems to be more common in men than in women.

Age

• The condition usually begins in people aged 10-30 years, with an average age at onset of 16 years in one study and a mean age of 22 years in another study. It persists for a number of years. Most patients retain the tendency for many years.
• In one series of 22 persons, the average duration was 7.5 years, with a range of 3-16 years, but, in 7 patients on follow-up study, some patients retained the tendency for 30 years.
• In another study, almost 96% of patients were men, with a mean age of 22 years, whereas in another group, 31 women and 25 men had cholinergic urticaria.

CLINICAL

Section 3 of 11  

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• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Acknowledgments
• Multimedia
• References

History

• Lesions appear rather rapidly, usually within a few minutes after the onset of sweating, and they last from a half-hour to an hour or more, with a mean duration of about 80 minutes.
• Symptoms are sufficiently uncomfortable to cause many patients to change their patterns of activity to prevent attacks.
• • Symptoms seem to follow any stimulus to sweat. A crucial point in cholinergic urticaria is not the actual temperature of the skin surface, the average skin temperature, or even the core temperature, but it is an increase or a decrease in the weighted average body temperature.
  • In cholinergic urticaria, whether skin lesions are provoked by passive heating of the body at rest (eg, saunalike conditions) or by active heating at a low ambient temperature is basically related to the thermoregulatory process.
• Exercise is the most common precipitating event, but any activity that causes sweating, including elevated environmental temperature, hot food, sauna baths, immersion in hot water, gustatory stimuli, emotional stress, and hemodialysis, can bring on an attack in some persons.
• Some persons who report symptoms only during the winter months apparently have a reaction only when exposed to heat or heat-producing exercise while unacclimatized to heat.

Physical

• Often, itching, burning, tingling, warmth, or irritation precedes the onset of numerous small (1-4 mm in diameter) pruritic wheals with large surrounding flares (see Media File 1).
• Lesions may appear anywhere on the body, except on the palms or the soles and rarely in the axillae. Sometimes, flares are the only presentation.
• Patients who are more severely affected may experience systemic symptomatology, such as fainting, abdominal cramping, diarrhea, salivation, and headaches.
• • Hepatocellular injury, angioedema, asthma, anaphylactoid, and even anaphylactic reactions are also reported.
  • Persons with cardiorespiratory symptoms include patients with increased pulmonary resistance with acetylcholine challenge, which may be a limiting factor in certain occupations (eg, those relating to aerospace).
• One form of cholinergic urticaria, sometimes called cholinergic erythema, is believed to show persistent and individual macules of short duration but with new macules continually appearing at adjacent sites.
• Cholinergic dermographism comprises a localized distribution of typical tiny wheals that appear after stroking the skin of some patients with cholinergic urticaria.
• A localized form and a presentation with cold-induced urticarial lesions may occur.
• • Patients with this condition experienced a generalized reaction to cold ambient air and cold water (but a negative response to the ice-cube test).
  • Cold urticaria and cold-induced cholinergic urticaria may be seen in about 1% of patients with cold urticaria.
• Cholinergic urticaria may also occur in the setting of acquired forms of generalized absence or decrease in sweating.
• • Some patients with acquired idiopathic generalized hypohidrosis are theorized to have a defect in the nerve-sweat gland junction.
  • Superficial obstruction of the acrosyringium has sometimes been associated with acquired generalized hypohidrosis.

Causes

• Exercise and hot baths exacerbate pruritus and provoke lesions in previously unaffected areas.
• Other diagnostic considerations
• • Some reports of chronic urticaria include patients with cholinergic urticaria, but the morphology is different. However, other physical urticarias with similar lesions, such as aquagenic urticaria, exist.
  • • Aquagenic urticaria appears in response to water at both cold temperatures and hot temperatures; when exposed to tap water at room temperature, the lesions resemble those of cholinergic urticaria.
    • In adrenergic urticaria, wheals are surrounded by vasoconstriction, and the response to epinephrine and norepinephrine is positive.
  • Commonly, patients with one physical urticaria tend to have another physical urticaria as well, sometimes precipitated by the same stimulus.
  • Cholinergic urticaria may be accompanied by cold urticaria, pressure urticaria, and even aquagenic urticaria.

DIFFERENTIALS

Section 4 of 11  

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• Follow-up
• Acknowledgments
• Multimedia
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Other Problems to be Considered

Adrenergic urticaria
Aquagenic urticaria

WORKUP

Section 5 of 11  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Acknowledgments
• Multimedia
• References

Lab Studies

• The most reliable way to reproduce the disease is to cause the patient to sweat from a stimulus, such as during exercise (eg, walking or running on a treadmill).
• • Traditionally, an intradermal injection of either 0.05 mL of 0.002% carbamylcholine chloride (carbachol) or 0.05 mL of 0.02% (0.01 mg) methacholine has been used to produce a flare-up containing characteristic wheals (often with satellites). This outcome occurs in about 51% of patients. The same flare-up may occur in persons without this condition, but it is usually smaller and without whealing.
  • Nicotinic acid has also been used at a dilution of 1:500,000 or 1:100,000.
  • Lesions of cholinergic urticaria have even been reproduced by curare derivatives (eg, D-tubocurarine).
  • Cholinergic dermographism can be reproduced by stroking the skin, by using methyl acetylcholine, or by employing other stimuli that cause sweating.

TREATMENT

Section 6 of 11  

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• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Acknowledgments
• Multimedia
• References

Medical Care

• Sometimes, an attack can be aborted by rapid cooling.
• Antihistamines, including cetirizine, are helpful. The response to cetirizine is important because some of the antihistaminic effect has been attributed to antimuscarinic activity.
• UV light has been beneficial in some patients, but one must be circumspect about contraindications to UV light.
• Aspirin aggravated the condition in 52% of patients with cholinergic urticaria, which is similar to other forms of urticaria.
• For patients with both cold urticaria and cholinergic urticaria, ketotifen (where available) may be helpful. About 62% of patients experience a reduction in wheals, and 68% of patients report reduced itching. Cardiorespiratory symptoms also reportedly respond to ketotifen.
• Danazol can be beneficial ostensibly because it elevates antichymotrypsin levels.
• Beta-blockers, such as propranolol, have been reported to be useful.
• In evaluating any response to therapy, one must always consider that the condition can clear spontaneously.
• Both topically applied benzoyl scopolamine and oral scopolamine butylbromide, where available, may be helpful in blocking the appearance of lesions after challenge.

Diet

• Modifying one's diet may be helpful because attacks can sometimes result from hot foods and beverages, highly spiced foods, and alcohol.

MEDICATION

Section 7 of 11  

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• Multimedia
• References

The goals of pharmacotherapy are to reduce morbidity and to prevent complications.

Drug Category: Antihistamines

These agents may control itching by blocking effects of endogenously released histamine.

FOLLOW-UP

Section 8 of 11  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Acknowledgments
• Multimedia
• References

Deterrence/Prevention

Patients should avoid the precipitating factors. These factors include exercise and any activity that causes sweating, such as elevated environmental temperature, hot food, sauna baths, immersion in hot water, gustatory stimuli, emotional stress, and hemodialysis, because these can bring on an attack in some persons.

Patient Education

For excellent patient education resources, visit eMedicine's Allergy Center and Skin, Hair, and Nails Center. Also, see eMedicine's patient education article Hives and Angioedema.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Section 9 of 11  

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• Follow-up
• Acknowledgments
• Multimedia
• References

The authors and editors of eMedicine gratefully acknowledge the contributions of previous author, Jere D Guin, MD, FACP^†, Former Professor Emeritus, Department of Dermatology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, to the development and writing of this article.

MULTIMEDIA

Section 10 of 11  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Acknowledgments
• Multimedia
• References

Media file 1:  Close-up view shows small urticarial wheals within large erythematous flares.
	View Full Size Image
Media type:  Photo

REFERENCES

Section 11 of 11

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Acknowledgments
• Multimedia
• References

• Ammann P, Surber E, Bertel O. Beta blocker therapy in cholinergic urticaria. Am J Med. Aug 1999;107(2):191. [Medline].
• Confino-Cohen R, Goldberg A, Magen E, et al. Hemodialysis-induced rash: a unique case of cholinergic urticaria. J Allergy Clin Immunol. Dec 1995;96(6 Pt 1):1002-4. [Medline].
• Czubalski K, Rudzki E. Neuropsychic factors in physical urticaria. Dermatologica. 1977;154(1):1-4. [Medline].
• Fukunaga A, Bito T, Tsuru K, et al. Responsiveness to autologous sweat and serum in cholinergic urticaria classifies its clinical subtypes. J Allergy Clin Immunol. Aug 2005;116(2):397-402. [Medline].
• Hirschmann JV, Lawlor F, English JS, et al. Cholinergic urticaria. A clinical and histologic study. Arch Dermatol. Apr 1987;123(4):462-7. [Medline].
• Itakura E, Urabe K, Yasumoto S, et al. Cholinergic urticaria associated with acquired generalized hypohidrosis: report of a case and review of the literature. Br J Dermatol. Nov 2000;143(5):1064-6. [Medline].
• Jorizzo JL. Cholinergic urticaria. Arch Dermatol. Apr 1987;123(4):455-7. [Medline].
• Kierland RR. Physical allergies. AMA Arch Derm Syphilol. Jul 1953;68(1):61-8. [Medline].
• Kobayashi H, Aiba S, Yamagishi T, et al. Cholinergic urticaria, a new pathogenic concept: hypohidrosis due to interference with the delivery of sweat to the skin surface. Dermatology. 2002;204(3):173-8. [Medline].
• Moore-Robinson M, Warin RP. Some clinical aspects of cholinergic urticaria. Br J Dermatol. Dec 1968;80(12):794-9. [Medline].
• Nakazato Y, Tamura N, Ohkuma A, et al. Idiopathic pure sudomotor failure: anhidrosis due to deficits in cholinergic transmission. Neurology. Oct 26 2004;63(8):1476-80. [Medline].
• Soter NA, Wasserman SI. Physical urticaria/angioedema: an experimental model of mast cellactivation in humans. J Allergy Clin Immunol. Nov 1980;66(5):358-65. [Medline].
• Tsunemi Y, Ihn H, Saeki H, Tamaki K. Cholinergic urticaria successfully treated with scopolamine butylbromide. Int J Dermatol. Oct 2003;42(10):850. [Medline].
• Tupker RA, Doeglas HM. Water vapour loss threshold and induction of cholinergic urticaria. Dermatologica. 1990;181(1):23-5. [Medline].
• Warin R, Champion R. Urticaria. Philadelphia: WB Saunders;1974:136-144.

Article Last Updated: May 25, 2006