AUTHOR AND EDITOR INFORMATION

Section 1 of 10  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• References

INTRODUCTION

Section 2 of 10  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• References

Background

In 1961, Petersdorf and Beeson defined a fever of unknown origin (FUO) as the following: (1) a temperature greater than 38.3°C (101°F) on several occasions, (2) more than 3 weeks' duration of illness, and (3) failure to reach a diagnosis despite 1 week of inpatient investigation. This article provides a review of the etiologies of FUO and a rational approach to investigating a patient with this interesting condition.

Pathophysiology

FUOs are caused by infections (30-40%), neoplasms (20-30%), collagen vascular diseases (10-20%), and numerous miscellaneous diseases (15-20%). The literature also reveals that between 5-15% of FUO cases defy diagnosis, despite exhaustive studies.

Variation in the disease, as found in the literature, reflects the populations and period studied. In children, infections are the most frequent cause of FUOs, whereas neoplasms and connective-tissue disorders are more frequent in the elderly. In patients with FUOs lasting more than 1 year, infections and neoplasms decline in frequency, and granulomatous diseases become the most frequent etiology.

Diagnostic advances continuously modify the spectrum of FUO-causing diseases; for example, serologic tests have reduced the importance of HIV and numerous rheumatic diseases (eg, systemic lupus erythematosus [SLE], juvenile rheumatoid arthritis [JRA], rheumatoid arthritis [RA]) as causes of FUO. Modern imaging techniques (eg, ultrasound, CT scan, MRI) enable early detection of abscesses and solid tumors that used to be extremely difficult to diagnose.

Patients with undiagnosed FUOs (5-15%) generally have a benign long-term course, especially when the fever is not accompanied by substantial weight loss or other signs of a serious underlying disease. These findings suggest that an intensive and rational diagnostic evaluation usually results in the identification of the most serious diseases that initially manifest as FUOs.

Age

In patients older than 50 years, more than 30% of FUO cases are related to connective-tissue disorders and vasculitic disorders. Giant cell arteritis (GCA) and polymyalgia rheumatica (PMR) are the 2 principal connective-tissue etiologies, and they account for 50% of the cases.

CLINICAL

Section 3 of 10  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• References

History

• Diagnostic approach to adults with FUO
• • Inquire about symptoms from all major organ systems, including a detailed history of general complaints (eg, fever, weight loss, night sweats, headaches, rashes).
  • Record all complaints, even if they disappeared before the examination. Previous illnesses are important, including surgeries and psychiatric illnesses.
  • Provide a detailed evaluation including the following:
  • • Family history
    • Immunization status
    • Occupational history
    • Travel history
    • Nutrition (including consumption of dairy products)
    • Drug history (over-the-counter medications, prescription medications, illicit substances)
    • Sexual history
    • Recreational habits
    • Animal contacts (including possible exposure to ticks and other vectors)

Physical

• Definitive documentation of fever and exclusion of factitious fever are essential early steps in the physical examination.
• • Measure the fever more than once and in the presence of a nurse to exclude manipulation of thermometers.
  • Electronic thermometers facilitate the rapid and unequivocal documentation of fever.
• The pattern of fever (continuous, remittent, intermittent) usually is of little help in the evaluation.
• • In general, correlation between fever patterns and specific diseases is weak. Notable exceptions are tertian and quartan malaria. However, most people who are naive about malaria do not present with FUO because they are usually diagnosed before 3 weeks have elapsed.
  • Other diseases (eg, brucellosis, borreliosis, Hodgkin disease) tend to cause recurrent episodes of fever.
• Repeat a regular physical examination daily while the patient is hospitalized. Pay special attention to rashes, new or changing cardiac murmurs, signs of arthritis, abdominal tenderness or rigidity, lymph node enlargement, funduscopic changes, and neurologic deficits.

Causes

• Bacterial diseases
• • Consider abscesses, which usually are located intraabdominally, even in the absence of localizing symptoms. Previous abdominal operations, trauma, or histories of diverticulosis, peritonitis, endoscopy, or gynecologic procedures all increase the likelihood of an occult intraabdominal abscess. Most common abscess locations are the subphrenic space, liver, right lower quadrant, retroperitoneal space, and the pelvis in women.
  • Tuberculosis (TB) usually is considered in the FUO differential diagnosis; however, several factors may prevent its prompt diagnosis. Dissemination, which usually occurs in patients who are immunocompromised, initially may present with constitutional symptoms that lack localizing signs. Chest radiographs can be normal. Patients may have negative purified protein derivative (PPD) tests, and cultures may not become positive for 4-6 weeks. TB of the kidney or mesenteric lymph nodes tends to manifest as a FUO by lacking characteristic localized manifestations. Disseminated visceral infections with atypical mycobacteria (M avium being the prototype) also cause FUO; however, most of these patients have some other underlying hematologic malignancy or are infected with HIV.
  • Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are rare causes of FUO because urinalysis is an easily performed routine test that detects most cases of UTIs. However, in young children, the collection of clean-catch urine specimens may be difficult; furthermore, perinephric abscesses occasionally fail to communicate with the urinary system resulting in a normal urinalysis. Occult UTI is possible in a patient with anatomic abnormalities of the urinary tract and a FUO.
  • Endocarditis is now a rare cause of FUO. Failure to diagnose it may be due to the absence of a murmur or the failure of blood cultures to yield the organism. Culture-negative endocarditis is reported in 5-10% of endocarditis cases. Prior antibiotic therapy is the most frequent reason for negative blood cultures.
  • With hepatobiliary infections, cholangitis can occur without local signs and with only mildly elevated or normal liver function tests. Similarly, acute cholecystitis or gallbladder empyema is responsible for cases of FUO because of the lack of right upper quadrant pain or jaundice, especially in elderly patients.
  • Osteomyelitis usually causes localized pain or discomfort, at least intermittently. The most frequent reason for misdiagnosis is the failure to consider osteomyelitis in a patient who is febrile with musculoskeletal symptoms. Consider vertebral osteomyelitis in patients with low-grade fever or a history of UTIs. Radiographs may not show changes for weeks after the development of symptoms. Radionucleotide studies (technetium Tc 99m bone scanning) are more sensitive than plain radiographs, and MRI also is an extremely useful test for the diagnosis of osteomyelitis.
• Other bacterial diseases
• • Some systemic bacterial illnesses occasionally manifest as FUOs. Brucellosis, still prevalent in Latin America and the Mediterranean, is very important. Consider this disease in patients with persistent fever and a history of contact with cattle, swine, goats, and sheep or in patients who consume raw milk products.
  • Researchers also describe systemic infections due to Salmonella species, Neisseria meningitidis, or Neisseria gonorrhoeae as causes of FUO. Cutaneous changes may be the only sign other than fever in neisserial infections. Cultures and serologic tests establish the diagnosis of these infections.
  • The most important spirochete is Borrelia recurrentis, which is transmitted by ticks and is responsible for causing sporadic cases of relapsing fever. Rat-bite fever (Spirillum minor), Lyme disease (Borrelia burgdorferi), and syphilis (Treponema pallidum) are other spirochetal diseases that can cause FUO.
• Viral diseases
• • HIV: Prolonged febrile episodes are frequent in patients with advanced HIV infection. Approximately 75% of the cases are infectious in nature, about 20-25% are due to lymphomas, and a small fraction (0-5%) is due to HIV itself. Typical and atypical mycobacteria and cytomegalovirus (CMV) are opportunistic infections that frequently cause prominent constitutional symptoms, including fever, with few localizing or specific signs. Other opportunistic infections (eg, salmonellosis, histoplasmosis, toxoplasmosis) also can present as FUO and elude rapid diagnosis in patients who are febrile with AIDS.
  • AIDS: Over 80% of patients with AIDS and lymphomas have involvement of extranodal sites (usually the brain). However, lymphomas can, at times, be difficult to promptly diagnose. Perform extensive diagnostic workup studies (eg, imaging studies) to exclude these opportunistic diseases in patients infected with HIV fever who have a prolonged fever before attributing the fever to the HIV infection.
  • Herpes viruses: CMV and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) can cause prolonged febrile illnesses with constitutional symptoms and no prominent organ manifestations, particularly in the elderly. Infections by each of these viruses usually cause lymphadenopathies, which may be missed on physical examination if the lymph nodes are not very enlarged. Serologic testing can confirm the correct diagnosis when the patient presents with lymphocytosis with atypical lymphocytes. These tests initially may be negative; therefore, repeat them in suspected cases 2-3 weeks after the onset of illness.
  • Fungi: Immunosuppression, the use of broad-spectrum antibiotics, the presence of intravascular devices, and total parenteral nutrition all predispose people to disseminated fungal infections, and Candida albicans is the main culprit. Systemic infection can remain undiscovered in these patients because blood cultures are negative in approximately 50% of the cases. Malassezia furfur can cause FUO and line infections in patients on total parenteral nutrition who receive intravenous lipid preparations. Sometimes, fever can be the most prominent symptom in patients with reticuloendothelial involvement by histoplasmosis without clinical manifestations in other organs.
  • Parasites: Consider toxoplasmosis in patients who are febrile with lymph node enlargement; however, the diagnosis may be difficult to establish because the lymph nodes may be small. Rising antibody titers and immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibodies confirm the diagnosis. If the physician is unaware of a history of recent travel to an endemic area and if the fever pattern is nonsynchronized, malaria can be missed as a cause of fever. Other parasites that rarely cause FUO include Trypanosoma, Leishmania, and Amoeba species.
  • Rickettsia: Chronic infections with Coxiella burnetii, chronic Q fever, or Q fever endocarditis are identified in patients with a FUO. Signs of hepatic involvement are frequent, and the infection is transmitted from cattle and sheep. Perform serologic tests in suspected cases.
  • Chlamydia: Consider Chlamydia psittaci, the cause of psittacosis, in a patient with FUO who has a history of contact with birds. Lymphogranuloma venereum, on rare occasions, also may manifest as FUO. Serology is essential for the diagnosis of these chlamydial infections.
• Neoplasms
• • Lymphomas: Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphomas frequently cause fever, night sweats, and weight loss. The correct diagnosis can be delayed if the tumor is difficult to detect (eg, when the disease is confined to the retroperitoneal lymph nodes). Anemia may be the most prominent laboratory abnormality.
  • Leukemias: Acute leukemias are another important neoplastic group that can cause FUO. In preleukemic states, the peripheral blood smear and bone marrow aspirate may not reveal the correct diagnosis; therefore, perform a bone marrow biopsy.
  • Solid tumors: Among solid tumors, renal cell carcinoma most commonly is associated with FUO, with fever being the only presenting symptom in 10% of cases. Hematuria may be absent in approximately 40% of cases, whereas anemia and a highly elevated sedimentation rate frequently occur.
  • Other solid tumors: Solid tumors such as adenocarcinomas of the breast, liver, colon, or pancreas and liver metastases from any primary site may present with fever.
  • Malignant histiocytosis: This is a rare rapidly progressive malignant disease that manifests with high fevers, weight loss, enlarged lymph nodes, and hepatosplenomegaly. It is an occasional cause of FUO.
• Collagen vascular and autoimmune diseases
• • These can present as a FUO if the fever precedes other more specific manifestations (eg, arthritis, pneumonitis, renal involvement).
  • SLE was a relatively common cause of FUO 20 years ago; nowadays, it is readily diagnosed in most cases by the demonstration of antinuclear antibodies.
  • Systemic-onset JRA is a cause of FUO that often is difficult to diagnose. High-spiking fevers, nonpruritic rashes, arthralgias and myalgias, pharyngitis, and lymphadenopathy typically are present. Laboratory abnormalities include pronounced leukocytosis, an elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), anemia, and abnormal liver function tests. These findings usually trigger a search for an infectious cause; thus, they delay the correct diagnosis.
  • Consider polyarteritis nodosa (PAN), RA, and mixed connective-tissue diseases (ie, other collagen vascular diseases) because of their potential for nonspecific presentations. Rheumatic fever can be difficult to diagnose because it is rare in the developed world.
• Granulomatous diseases
• • Sarcoidosis: Given its multiorgan involvement, it rarely manifests with fever and malaise without evidence of lymph node and pulmonary involvement. Erythema nodosum occasionally is present, and the finding of noncaseous granulomas in the liver should raise concern.
  • Regional enteritis: Crohn disease is the most common gastrointestinal cause of FUO. Diarrhea and other abdominal complaints may be absent in a few patients, particularly in young adults. Diagnose by conducting an endoscopy and biopsy.
  • Granulomatous hepatitis: In some patients with hepatic granulomas, none of the diseases usually associated with this nonspecific reaction are found (eg, TB, syphilis, brucellosis, sarcoidosis, Crohn disease, Hodgkin disease). These patients often have fever that may be accompanied by slight hepatomegaly, asthenia, and, sometimes, arthralgias and myalgias for many months or years. Elevated alkaline phosphatase is the most consistent laboratory abnormality. The long-term prognosis is excellent; approximately 50% of patients recover spontaneously, and the other 50% respond to corticosteroid treatment with the duration of therapy ranging from a few weeks to several years.
• Miscellaneous causes
• • Drug fever: Although a wide variety of drugs can cause drug fever, the most common are beta-lactam antibiotics, procainamide, isoniazid, alpha-methyldopa, quinidine, and diphenylhydantoin. A history of allergy, skin rashes, or peripheral eosinophilia often is absent in cases of drug fever. Neither the fever pattern nor the duration of previous therapy is helpful in establishing the diagnosis. When suspecting drug fever, discontinue the implicated drug. If the drug, in fact, was responsible for the fever, stopping the drug generally leads to defervescence within 2 days.
  • Inherited diseases: Familial Mediterranean fever most often is found, but not exclusively, in patients of Mediterranean descent. Recurrent febrile episodes at varying intervals are associated with pleural, abdominal, or joint pain due to polyserositis. This is a diagnosis of exclusion.
• Endocrine
• • Hyperthyroidism and subacute thyroiditis are the 2 most common endocrinologic causes of FUO. In fact, fever often is the major clinical sign, in addition to weight loss.
  • Adrenal insufficiency is a rare, potentially fatal, very treatable endocrine cause of FUO. Consider it in patients with nausea, vomiting, weight loss, skin hyperpigmentation, hypotension, hyponatremia, and hyperkalemia.
• Others
• • Peripheral pulmonary emboli and occult thrombophlebitis can cause FUO. Consider these diagnoses in patients with predisposing conditions, particularly previous surgery, traumas, or prolonged bed rest. Another possible cause of fever after surgery or trauma is an undiscovered hematoma, usually located intraabdominally.
  • A self-limiting necrotizing lymphadenitis (Kikuchi disease) recently has been described as a cause of FUOs. It causes prolonged fever, constitutional symptoms, laboratory evidence of chronic inflammation, and, sometimes, liver function abnormalities. The etiology of Kikuchi disease is unknown.
  • Factitious fever is responsible for as many as 10% of FUO cases in some series and is most commonly encountered among young adults with health care experience or knowledge. Frequently, evidence of psychiatric problems or a history of multiple hospitalizations exists at different institutions. Rapid changes of body temperature without associated shivering or sweating, large differences between rectal and oral temperature, and discrepancies between fever, pulse rate, or general appearance typically are observed in patients who manipulate or exchange their thermometers, the most common cause of factitious fever. Alternatively, fever may be caused by injection of nonsterile material (eg, feces, milk), resulting in atypically localized abscesses or polymicrobial infections. Therefore, consider factitious fever as a possibility in every patient with prolonged fever, especially in patients with one or more of the features described.
• Other vasculitides that cause FUO
• • GCA: Classic symptoms include temporal headache, jaw claudication, fever, visual disturbances (visual loss, blurred vision, diplopia, amaurosis fugax), weight loss, anorexia, fatigue, and cough. Polymyalgia (aching and stiffness of the proximal muscles and the trunk) occurs in 40% of these patients. During the examination, the physician may observe temporal artery tenderness or decreased pulsation. Laboratory findings include elevated ESR, mild-to-moderate normochromic normocytic anemia, elevated platelets, and abnormal liver function tests (25% of cases). Perform a biopsy of a temporal artery to obtain a definitive diagnosis. Pathologic review shows vasculitis and a mononuclear cell infiltrate.

    Treat the patient with high doses of steroids, and use intravenous steroids if the patient is very ill or has significant ocular compromise. Carefully monitor the patient because potential for significant morbidity from inadequate treatment and steroid toxicities (eg, hypertension, diabetes, dyspepsia, bone loss, psychosis, cataracts) exists.

  • PMR: This is characterized by symmetrical pain and stiffness involving the lumbar spine and large proximal muscles, most notably the neck, shoulders, hips, and thighs. Symptoms usually are worse in the morning. Constitutional symptoms (eg, fever, malaise, depression, weight loss) also are observed. Symptoms may worsen relentlessly over weeks to months without treatment. Physical examination is notable for normal muscle strength. Carefully perform a history and physical because patients with such protean symptoms may evade diagnosis. Diagnosis of PMR is clinical, and treatment is 2-fold as follows:
  • • Amelioration of symptoms with steroid therapy
    • Close monitoring for possible development of GCA
  • PAN ranks a distant third behind GCA and PMR among the vasculitides that cause FUO in patients older than 50 years. The other mentioned conditions (Wegener granulomatosis, Takayasu arteritis, cryoglobulinemia) are even less common. PAN involves the medium- and small-sized muscular arteries. The male-to-female incidence ratio is 2:1. Incidence increases in patients with hepatitis B or C. Any 3 of the following 10 findings is sufficient for the diagnosis of PAN (sensitivity 82%, specificity 86%), and therapy consists of prednisone (cyclophosphamide is used in refractory cases):
  • • Mononeuritis multiplex
    • Myalgias with muscle tenderness
    • Livedo reticularis
    • Testicular pain or tenderness
    • Renal impairment (elevated BUN and creatinine)
    • Weight loss of 4 kg or more
    • Diastolic blood pressure greater than 90 mm Hg
    • Hepatitis B positive
    • Arteriography showing small and large aneurysms and focal constrictions between dilated segments
    • Biopsy of small- or medium-sized arteries containing white blood cell infiltrate
  • Other vasculitides that cause FUO are PAN, Wegener granulomatosis, Takayasu arteritis, and cryoglobulinemia.

DIFFERENTIALS

Section 4 of 10  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• References

Other Problems to be Considered

Atypical mycobacteria
Bubonic plague
Clostridial necrotizing fasciitis
Eosinophilic toxocariasis
Fungal infections of the genitourinary tract
Gallbladder gangrene
Heroin abuse
Lung cancer
Lyssavirus
Picornavirus
Pneumoconiosis
Retroviruses
Rhinocerebral phycomycosis
Sepsis
Sinusitis, sphenoid
Thrombophlebitis
Thyroid carcinoma
Trypanosoma
Tuberculosis of the genitourinary tract
Urinary tract infection
Venereal warts
Osteomyelitis
Rat-bite fever (S minor)
Malassezia furfur
Coxiella burnetii
Malignant histiocytosis
Drug fever
Factitious fever
Kikuchi disease

WORKUP

Section 5 of 10  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• References

Lab Studies

• CBC count and microscopic examination
• • Anemia is an important finding and suggests a serious underlying disease.
  • Ensure that leukemias are not missed in aleukemic or preleukemic cases.
  • Suspect herpesvirus infection if the patient has lymphocytosis with atypical cells.
  • A leukocytosis with an increase in bands suggests an occult bacterial infection.
  • Diagnose malaria and spirochetal diseases with the aid of direct examination of the peripheral blood smear; however, repeated examinations often are necessary.
• Urinalysis: Exclude UTIs and malignant tumors of the urinary tract; however, not all of them consistently are associated with pathologic findings in the urine.
• Serum chemistry
• • At least one liver function test is usually abnormal, with an underlying disease originating in the liver or a disease that causes nonspecific alterations of the liver (eg, granulomatous hepatitis).
  • Most other chemistry tests rarely contribute to the diagnosis, though they are frequently ordered.
• Cultures
• • Blood cultures for aerobic and anaerobic pathogens are essential in the evaluation; however, no more than 6 sets of blood cultures are required. Routinely culture the patients' urine.
  • Cultures of sputum and stool may be helpful in the presence of signs or symptoms suggestive of pulmonary or gastrointestinal disease, respectively.
  • Obtain cultures for bacteria, mycobacteria, and fungi in all normally sterile tissues and liquids that are sampled during further workup. These tissues and fluids include cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), pleural or peritoneal fluid, and fluid from the liver, bone marrow, and lymph nodes.
• Serologies
• • Serologies are most helpful if paired samples show a significant, usually 4-fold, increase of antibodies specific to an infectious microorganism. Brucellosis, CMV, infectious mononucleosis, HIV, amebiasis, toxoplasmosis, and chlamydial diseases are diagnosed by serology.
  • These diagnostic tests are of limited value in most patients with FUO, but they are appropriate for evaluation of the above illnesses in the correct clinical and epidemiological setting.
• Other tests
• • Frequently check antinuclear antibody (ANA) titers, rheumatologic factor, thyroxine level, and ESR because they are helpful in diagnosing a selected condition (lupus, RA, thyroiditis, hyperthyroidism, GCA, PMR). Their diagnostic accuracy is limited in other autoimmune and collagen vascular diseases.
  • In patients in whom GCA and PMR are suspected, checking the ESR may be particularly useful because the ESR is nearly always greater than 60 mm/h (and often is much higher, especially in GCA).

Imaging Studies

• Routinely obtain chest radiographs.
• Routine abdominal ultrasound examinations also may be justified, even in the absence of signs of an intraabdominal process. However, do not exclude such a process with a negative ultrasound and symptoms suggestive of an intraabdominal process.
• CT scans
• • If ultrasound studies fail to help reveal the diagnosis, obtain CT scans of the abdomen in all patients with symptoms suggesting an intraabdominal process, in patients with suspected retroperitoneal tumors or infections, or in those with abnormal liver function tests.
  • Intravenous pyelography may be more sensitive than the CT scan in detecting processes involving the descending urinary tract, but the CT scan is preferred for most other processes of the retroperitoneal space.
• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can be very useful in cases where osteomyelitis is suspected. MRI has also been used in the diagnosis of vasculitides.

Other Tests

• Endoscopic examination
• • Perform an endoscopic examination of the upper and lower gastrointestinal tract, including retrograde cholangiography when indicated or when searching for Crohn disease, Whipple disease, biliary tract disease, and gastrointestinal tumors.
  • Occasionally, complementing endoscopic studies with barium enemas or upper gastrointestinal series is necessary.
• Radionucleotide studies
• • Perform ventilation and perfusion radionucleotide studies to document pulmonary emboli.
  • Obtain a pulmonary angiography when suspecting pulmonary emboli, despite negative scanning studies.
  • A technetium bone scan may be a more sensitive method for documenting skeletal involvement when suspecting osteomyelitis in a patient without compatible changes in conventional radiography.
  • Consider radionucleotide studies using gallium citrate or granulocytes labeled with indium In 111 for diagnosis of occult abscesses, neoplasms, or soft tissue lymphomas.
• Positron emission tomography (PET) scanning has enhanced the detection of occult neoplasms, lymphomas, and vasculitides in patients with FUO.
• Echocardiography: This technique is highly sensitive in diagnosing endocarditis, particularly when transesophageal echocardiography is available.

Procedures

• The final diagnosis is obtained during direct biopsy examination of involved tissue. Biopsies are easily performed in enlarged accessible lymph nodes, other peripheral tissues, and bone marrow.
• The decision to biopsy is more difficult if it necessitates an exploratory surgical procedure (eg, laparotomy). This rarely is indicated (eg, when imaging techniques are nondiagnostic and an intraabdominal source is suspected).
• Liver biopsy rarely results in helpful data for patients without abnormal liver function tests or abnormal liver findings (observed on CT scan or ultrasound).

TREATMENT

Section 6 of 10  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• References

Medical Care

Direct treatment toward the underlying cause.

Surgical Care

Because of a better understanding of the etiologies and careful diagnostic approaches, patients with FUO rarely need surgical treatment.

Consultations

Appropriate consultations are indicated based on patient history, physical examination, laboratory data, and radiologic findings, and they include the following:

• Infectious disease
• Hematology/oncology
• Rheumatology
• Pulmonology
• Gastroenterology
• Endocrinology
• Interventional radiology
• Surgery

MEDICATION

Section 7 of 10  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• References

The medications used depend upon the etiology of the FUO.

FOLLOW-UP

Section 8 of 10  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• References

Further Inpatient Care

• Approximately 5-15% of patients remain undiagnosed, even after extensive evaluations.
• Careful review of the literature shows that patients usually have a benign long-term course, especially in the absence of substantial weight loss or other signs of a serious underlying disease.
• No evidence supports prolonged hospitalization in patients who are clinically stable and whose workup is unrevealing.

Further Outpatient Care

• Conduct close follow-up procedures and systematic reevaluation studies to ensure that no clinical worsening occurs and guide further workup studies on an outpatient basis.

In/Out Patient Meds

• The medications used are case dependent.

Transfer

• Indications
• • The current facility is unable to arrive at a diagnosis.
  • Diagnostic tests are unavailable at the existing facility.
  • Clinical deterioration of the patient occurs.

Complications

• Complications, if they occur, are case dependent.

Prognosis

• The prognosis is case dependent.

Patient Education

• For excellent patient education resources, visit eMedicine's Cold and Flu Center and Children's Health Center. Also, see eMedicine's patient education articles Fever in Adults and Fever in Children.

MISCELLANEOUS

Section 9 of 10  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• References

Medical/Legal Pitfalls

• Problems may arise in 5-15% of patients whose FUO remains undiagnosed, even after extensive evaluations. These patients usually have a benign long-term course, but close follow-up and systematic reevaluation studies are essential to avoid missing potential etiologies.

REFERENCES

Section 10 of 10

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• References

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• Argibay S, Díaz J, Nunez I, et al. [Hepatic abscess demonstrated by 67Ga-citrate scintigraphy within a diagnosis of fever of unknown origin]. Rev Esp Med Nucl. Nov-Dec 2004;23(6):417-20. [Medline].
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• Gaeta GB, Fusco FM, Nardiello S. Fever of unknown origin: a systematic review of the literature for 1995-2004. Nucl Med Commun. 2006;27:205-1.
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• Larson EB, Featherstone HJ, Petersdorf RG. Fever of undetermined origin: diagnosis and follow-up of 105 cases, 1970-1980. Medicine (Baltimore). Sep 1982;61(5):269-92. [Medline].
• Lopez Rodriguez M, Vazquez Munoz E, Gomez Cerezo J, et al. [Cost-effectiveness of computerized axial tomography in the diagnosis of traditional clinical picture of fever of unknown origin]. Rev Clin Esp. Jan 2005;205(1):19-23. [Medline].
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Article Last Updated: Mar 24, 2006