AUTHOR AND EDITOR INFORMATION

Section 1 of 12  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• Acknowledgments
• Multimedia
• References

INTRODUCTION

Section 2 of 12  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• Acknowledgments
• Multimedia
• References

Background

Primary amenorrhea is the failure of menses to occur by age 16 years, in the presence of normal growth and secondary sexual characteristics. If by age 13, menses has not occurred and the onset of puberty, such as breast development, is absent, a work-up for primary amenorrhea should start. For information on secondary amenorrhea, see Amenorrhea, Secondary.

Pathophysiology

Menstruation is the cyclic, orderly sloughing of the uterine lining, due to the interactions of hormones produced by the hypothalamus, pituitary, and ovaries.

Hypothalamic amenorrhea

Hypothalamic dysfunction results in decreased or inhibited GnRH secretion, which affects the pulsatile release of LH and FSH, causing anovulation.

A common cause of amenorrhea is functional hypothalamic amenorrhea.¹ It is characterized by abnormal hypothalamic GnRH secretion, decreased gonadotropin pulsations, low or normal LH concentrations, absent LH surges, abnormal follicular development, and low serum estradiol. Serum FSH concentrations are usually in the normal range, with high FSH to LH ratio.² This can be caused by eating disorders, exercise, or high levels of prolonged physical or mental stress. This can also include major psychiatric disorders such as depression. For further information, see Medscape's Eating Disorders and Depression Resource Centers.

Congenital GnRH deficiency leads to low gonadotropin levels. When this occurs with anosmia, it is diagnosed as Kallman syndrome. Kallman syndrome may be associated with midline facial defect, renal agenesis, and neurologic deficiency. Most often, it occurs as X-linked recessive disorder. Autosomal dominant and autosomal recessive inheritances are possible but less common. For detailed information, see Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Deficiency in Adults.

Evidence suggests a negative correlation between body fat and menstrual abnormalities. A critical body fat level must be present to have a functioning reproductive system. The excessive exercise in which these athletes engage increases the effects of the associated nutritional deficiency. This synergism causes severe suppression of GnRH, leading to the low estradiol levels. The female athletic triad is characterized by disordered eating, amenorrhea, and osteoporosis as defined by the American College of Sports Medicine.¹

Anorexia nervosa is a serious psychiatric disease with severe medical complications including primary amenorrhea (15%), osteopenia (52%), and osteoporosis (35%).³

Functional causes of amenorrhea include severe chronic disease, rapid weight loss, malnutrition, depression or other psychiatric disorders, recreational drug abuse, and psychotropic drug use.

Pituitary amenorrhea

A deficiency in FSH and LH may be a result of GnRH receptor gene mutations. Mutations in the FSH beta gene have been associated with amenorrhea. These women have low FSH and estradiol levels and high LH levels. Primary amenorrhea caused by hyperprolactinemia is a rare condition characterized by the onset of thelarche and pubarche at appropriate ages but arrest of pubertal development before menarche.⁴ Hyperprolactinemia is associated with suppression of the GnRH from the hypothalamus and subsequent inhibition of LH and FSH, suppressed gonadal function and galactorrhea. Prolactinomas are the most common cause of persistent hyperprolactinemia, accounting for 40-50% of pituitary tumors.⁵

Pituitary tumors may suppress gonadotropin secretion such as in Cushing disease or hypothalamic tumors, craniopharyngioma, or germinoma. Brain injury or cranial irradiation may also result in amenorrhea. Other pituitary causes include empty sella syndrome, pituitary infarct, hemachromatoses, and sarcoidosis.

Ovarian causes of primary amenorrhea

Gonadal dysgenesis most commonly occurs in Turner syndrome (45, X). Accelerated loss of the germ cells in the gonads occurs. The gonads usually contain only fibrous tissue and are called streak gonads. Gonadotropin levels, especially the FSH levels, are high during early childhood and after 9-10 years of age. Additional anomalies associated with Turner syndrome include short stature, webbed neck, coarctation of the aorta (10%), renal abnormalities (50%), hypertension, pigmented nevi, short forth metacarpal and metatarsals, Hashimoto thyroiditis, obesity, and osteoporosis.¹ Depletion of ovarian follicles causes amenorrhea.

Spontaneous 46,XX primary ovarian insufficiency (POI), (also known as premature ovarian failure [POF] and premature menopause) affects 1 in 10,000 women by age 20, 1 in 1,000 women by age 30, 1 in 250 women by age 35, and 1 in 100 women by age 40.⁶ POI is hypergonadotropic hypogonadism, characterized by oligomenorrhea, estrogen deficiency, and its associated symptoms such as hot flashes, vaginal dryness, dyspareunia, and insomnia. For more detailed information, see Spontaneous Primary Ovarian Insufficiency and Premature Ovarian Failure

The fragile X premutation accounts for approximately 6% of cases of overt POI. It is caused by an increased number of CGG repeats in the FMR1 gene located on the long arm of the X-chromosome. In the premutation, the number of CGG repeats ranges from 55-200. Approximately 21% of premutation carriers have POF/POI compared with 1% in the general population.⁷ Autoimmune oophoritis occurs in 3-4% of POI cases.⁸

Amenorrhea is also seen in pure 46,XX gonadal dysgenesis and in 46,XY gonadal dysgenesis. These women have significantly elevated FSH levels due to the absence of ovarian follicles and reduction in negative feedback on FSH from estradiol and inhibin A and B.

46,XY gonadal dysgenesis (Swyer syndrome): The early stages of testicular formation require the action of several genes, of which one of the earliest and most important is the sex-determining region of the Y chromosome (SRY). In patients with mutations of the SRY gene, the testes never form and antimüllerian hormone is not produced. As a result, these patients have a vagina, uterus, and fallopian tubes. Germ cells in the ovaries are lost before birth. The streak gonads must be surgically removed because of the increased risk for developing germ cell tumor. Pure gonadal dysgenesis occurs when the syndrome affects the gonad only and no other dysmorphic features are noted.

Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) usually presents as secondary amenorrhea, but in some cases may present as primary amenorrhea. See Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome for more information.

Congenital and anatomical abnormalities

A uterus and patent vaginal tract are needed for normal menstrual flow to occur. Female reproductive tract abnormalities account for about one fifth of primary amenorrhea cases. Cyclic pelvic pain is common in girls with disorders of the reproductive tract that have outflow obstruction. Imperforate hymen causes an outflow obstruction. These patients can have blood in the vagina that collects and can result in a perirectal mass. Transverse vaginal septum can be anywhere along the tract between the hymenal ring and cervix.

Vaginal agenesis, or müllerian dysgenesis (also known as Mayer-Rokitansky-Kuster-Hauser [MRKH] syndrome) is caused by agenesis or partial agenesis of the müllerian duct system. It is characterized by congenital aplasia of the uterus and upper two thirds of the vagina in women showing normal development of the secondary sexual characteristics and a normal 46,XX karyotype.⁹ The first sign is primary amenorrhea. It affects 1 of 4500 women. It could be associated with renal, vertebral, and, to a lesser extent, auditory and cardiac defects.⁹

Receptor and enzyme defects

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia as a result of 17 alpha-hydroxylase deficiency (CYP17) causes an excess of deoxycortisone to be produced and deficiency of cortisol and adrenal and gonadal sex steroids. Patients with this disorder who experience primary amenorrhea can be either genotypic males (XY) or females (XX).¹

Vanishing testes syndrome is characterized by genotypic males 46,XY whose gonads do not develop completely. As a result, no testosterone, estrogen, or müllerian-inhibiting substance is produced. These patients appear phenotypically female. The diagnosis is made from the findings of gonadal failure with lack of pubertal progression, high-serum FSH and LH concentrations, and male karyotype.  

Androgen insensitivity syndrome occurs when patients are resistant to testosterone. It is an X linked disease. Patients appear as phenotypically normal females. The testes, located internally and sometimes in the labia or inguinal area, do make müllerian-inhibiting hormone, so all müllerian structures, fallopian tubes, uterus, and upper third of the vagina are absent.    

Gonadotropin resistance is rare, but inactivating mutations of the receptors for LH and FSH can cause anovulatory amenorrhea.¹⁰

Aromatase deficiency is also a rare disorder. Aromatase catalyzes the conversion of androgen to estrogen. When estrogen synthesis cannot occur, increased levels of testosterone result and virilization of the female occurs. Often, girls have cystic ovaries and resultant amenorrhea.¹¹

Other causes

Hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, sarcoidosis, galactosemia or any severe chronic medical condition may result in amenorrhea.¹²

Frequency

United States

The incidence of primary amenorrhea in the United States is less than 1%.¹³

International

No evidence indicates that the prevalence of amenorrhea varies according to national origin or ethnic group. However, local environmental factors related to nutrition and the prevalence of chronic disease undoubtedly have an effect. For instance, the age of the first menses varies by geographic location, as demonstrated by a World Health Organization study comparing 11 countries, which reported a median age of menarche of 13-16 years across centers.

Mortality/Morbidity

Regular menses is a sign that the ovaries are producing normal amounts of estrogen, androgens, and progesterone. These sex hormones play an important role in building and maintaining bone mass. Late menarche has been associated with a 3-fold increase in the risk of wrist fracture.¹⁴

Race

No evidence suggests that the incidence of primary amenorrhea is related to race.

Sex

Amenorrhea occurs only in women.

CLINICAL

Section 3 of 12  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• Acknowledgments
• Multimedia
• References

Assessment of the adolescent patient requires a sensitive, age-appropriate approach. Clinicians need to consider the psychosocial age and emotional maturity of the patient, in contrast to the chronological age, when examining the adolescent. The physician should find out how much the patient knows by asking her about her understanding of why she is being seen and what she has been told. The subsequent step is to find out how much the patient wants to know by asking about her concerns and letting questions emerge.

History

Absence of spontaneous menstruation before age 16 is an indication for a careful review of systems. The menstrual cycle should be viewed as a vital sign. Inquiring about other aspects of growth and pubertal development is important. An absence of any breast development or pubertal growth spurt by age 13-14 years in girls is distinctly abnormal and requires investigation. Breast development, pubertal growth spurt, and adrenarche are delayed or absent in persons with hypothalamic pituitary failure. A distinguishing factor in the case of isolated ovarian insufficiency or failure is that adrenarche occurs normally, while estrogen-dependent breast development and the pubertal growth spurt are absent or delayed.

Pregnancy could be the cause for primary amenorrhea. Determining whether the patient is sexually active and whether she is using contraceptive methods is important. See Medscape's Pregnancy Resource Center.

• Disorders of the outflow tract: A history of otherwise normal growth and pubertal development and cyclic pelvic pain in association with primary amenorrhea suggests the possibility of a congenital outflow tract abnormality such as imperforate hymen or agenesis of the vagina, cervix, or uterus. These findings are also compatible with the complete androgen resistance syndrome.
• Ovarian disorders
• • Symptoms of vaginal dryness, hot flashes, night sweats, or disordered sleep may be a sign of ovarian insufficiency or premature ovarian failure. The presence of these symptoms in young women demands further evaluation in a timely manner.
  • Prior history of chemotherapy or radiation therapy may be associated with ovarian failure.
  • A distinguishing factor in the case of isolated ovarian insufficiency or failure and primary amenorrhea is that adrenarche occurs normally while estrogen-dependent breast development and the pubertal growth spurt are absent or delayed.
• Hypothalamic/pituitary disorders
• • Associated galactorrhea, headaches, or reduced peripheral vision could be a sign of intracranial tumor such as prolactinoma. These symptoms require immediate further evaluation.
  • An impaired sense of smell in association with primary amenorrhea and failure of normal pubertal development may be related to isolated gonadotropin deficiency, as is observed in persons with Kallmann syndrome.
  • Sarcoidosis can manifest insidiously, with development of mild fatigue, malaise, anorexia, weight loss, and fever. Because 90% of patients with sarcoidosis have pulmonary involvement at some stage of the disorder, cough and dyspnea may be present.
  • Hemachromatoses may manifest as weakness, lassitude, weight loss, and a change in skin color.
• Functional impairment of the hypothalamic GnRH pulse generator
• • Dieting with excessive restriction of energy intake, especially fat restriction, may lead to amenorrhea and associated bone loss. In extreme cases, the process may advance to anorexia nervosa, a potentially fatal condition. Associated symptoms are an intense fear of fatness and a body image that is heavier than observed. Eating disorders can be restrictive in nature or can be of a binge-eating/purging type.
  • Major psychiatric disorders such as depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder, or schizophrenia may cause amenorrhea. Symptoms associated with these conditions may be detected upon review of systems.
  • Autoimmune adrenal insufficiency, a potentially fatal condition, often manifests as vague and nonspecific symptoms. Amenorrhea may be the first clear symptom indicating a need for further evaluation to detect this condition.
  • Amenorrhea may herald the onset of other autoimmune endocrine disorders such as hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, or autoimmune lymphocytic hypophysitis. The same is true for other endocrine disorders such as Cushing syndrome or pheochromocytoma. A careful review of symptoms may help uncover these disorders.
  • Strenuous exercise related to a wide variety of athletic activities can be associated with the development of amenorrhea. Elicit a history regarding the type of exercise activity and its duration per week.
  • Abuse of drugs such as cocaine and opioids have central effects that may disrupt the menstrual cycle.
  • AIDS, HIV disease, or other types of immune-deficiency states may induce systemic infection leading to chronic disease and amenorrhea.
  • Occult malignancy with progressive weight loss and a catabolic state may lead to loss of menstrual regularity. A careful review of systems may help uncover such a disorder.

Physical

Before physical examination, the clinician should engage the adolescent in a discussion to assess her emotional maturity and establish a relationship. As questions emerge, the clinician should share age-appropriate information about the condition, giving the opportunity to respond to the patient’s emotions. After careful preparation and with privacy, the physical and pelvic examination should come later in the assessment.

• Physical examination should begin with an overall assessment of nutritional status and general health. Measure height and weight and seek evidence for chronic disease or cachexia.
• Hypothermia, bradycardia, hypotension, and reduced subcutaneous fat can be observed in persons with severe anorexia nervosa. In cases of frequent vomiting, look for possible dental erosion, reduced gag reflex, trauma to the palate, subconjunctival hemorrhage, and metacarpophalangeal calluses or bruises. 
• Skin examination findings can also give clues to other endocrine disorders. Vitiligo or increased pigmentation of the palmar creases may herald primary adrenal insufficiency. Thin, parchmentlike skin, striae, and evidence of easy bruising may be signs of Cushing syndrome. Warm, moist skin radiating excessive heat may be a sign of hyperthyroidism. 
• Examine the skin for evidence of androgen excess, such as hirsutism and acne. Acanthosis nigricans may be present in association with androgen excess related to insulin resistance.
• Large pituitary tumors can cause visual-field cuts by impinging on the optic tract. In some cases, these visual-field cuts can be detected by simple confrontational testing.
• Assess the state of breast development. Also examine the breasts for galactorrhea. In some cases, breast discharge can be expressed, yet the condition is not true galactorrhea. If the discharge is indeed milk, this can be confirmed by finding fat globules in the fluid using low-power microscopy.
• Examine for the presence of axillary and pubic hair. These are a marker of adrenal and ovarian androgen secretion. In cases of panhypopituitarism, sources of androgen are low and pubic and axillary hair is sparse. In addition, some women develop the combination of autoimmune premature ovarian failure and autoimmune primary adrenal insufficiency. These women are also markedly androgen-deficient and have scant axillary and pubic hair. The same is true for persons with androgen insensitivity syndrome (testicular feminization), 17-hydroxylase deficiency, and 17,20-desmolase deficiency.
• In cases of primary amenorrhea with otherwise normal pubertal development, pelvic examination may help detect imperforate hymen, a transverse vaginal septum, or cervical or uterine aplasia.
• Pelvic examination findings can provide physical evidence indicating the adequacy of estrogen production. Thin and pale vaginal mucosa with absent rugae is evidence of estrogen deficiency.
• Measuring the clitoris is an effective method for determining the degree of androgen effect. The clitoral index can be determined by measuring the glans of clitoris in the anteroposterior and transverse diameter. A clitoral index greater than 35 mm² is evidence of increased androgen effect. A clitoral index greater than 100 mm² is evidence of virilization.
• Ovarian enlargement may be found upon pelvic examination in cases of autoimmune oophoritis, 17-hydroxylase deficiency, or 17,20-desmolase deficiency. In these disorders, inadequate negative feedback supplied by the ovary permits excessive gonadotropin stimulation that may cause ovarian enlargement with multiple follicular cysts. In some cases, these disorders manifest with an acute onset of pain related to ovarian torsion.
• A general physical examination may undercover unexpected findings that are indirectly related to the loss of menstrual regularity (eg, discovery of hepatosplenomegaly, which may lead to detection of a chronic systemic disease).

Causes

Amenorrhea can be divided into 2 groups, (1) amenorrhea without evidence of associated androgen excess and (2) amenorrhea with evidence of androgen excess (eg, hirsutism, virilization, sexual ambiguity). For a review of the causes of amenorrhea associated with androgen excess, see Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome.

Primary amenorrhea is usually caused by genetic or anatomic abnormality.

Causes of amenorrhea without associated androgen excess

• Pregnancy
• Anatomic defects of outflow tract
• • Imperforate hymen
  • Transverse vaginal septum
  • Aplasia of the vagina, cervix, or uterus: Congenital absence of the uterus can be an isolated finding or it can occur in association with the complete androgen resistance syndrome, also known as testicular feminization.
• Ovarian causes
• • Karyotypically normal spontaneous primary ovarian insufficiency or premature ovarian failure (For an in-depth discussion, see Spontaneous Primary Ovarian Insufficiency and Premature Ovarian Failure.)
  • Turner syndrome
  • Pure gonadal dysgenesis: The term pure refers to the fact that the syndrome seems to have purely affected the gonad. No associated dysmorphic findings exist as are noted in Turner syndrome, which is often referred to as gonadal dysgenesis. Pure gonadal dysgenesis can occur with either a 46,XX or a 46,XY karyotype.
  • Autoimmune oophoritis
  • 17,20-desmolase deficiency or 17-hydroxylase deficiency
  • Radiation or chemotherapy before puberty
  • Galactosemia
  • FSH receptor mutation
• Pituitary causes
• • Prolactinoma
  • Other pituitary tumors (Cushing syndrome, acromegaly, thyrotropin secreting tumor)
  • Autoimmune hypophysitis
  • Pituitary radiation
  • Sarcoidosis
  • Hemachromatoses
  • Hypothalamic causes
  • • Tumors such as craniopharyngioma or teratoma
    • Infiltrative disorder such as sarcoidosis
    • Kallmann syndrome
• Functional causes 
• • Anorexia/bulimia
  • Chronic disease
  • Weight loss
  • Malnutrition
  • Depression or other psychiatric disorders
  • Recreational drug abuse
  • Psychotropic drug use
  • Excessive exercise
  • Idiopathic

• Hypergonadotropic hypogonadism (48.5%)
• • Abnormal sex chromosomes (Turner syndrome [29.7%])
  • Normal sex chromosomes (46,XX [15.4%]; 46,XY [3.4%])
• Hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (27.8%)
• • Congenital abnormalities
  • • Isolated GnRH deficiency (8.3%)
    • Forms of hypopituitarism (2.3%)
    • Congenital central nervous system (CNS) defects (0.8%)
    • Constitutional delay (6%)
  • Acquired lesions
  • Endocrine
  • • Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) (0.8%)
    • Cushing syndrome (0.4%)
    • Pseudohypoparathyroidism (0.4%)
    • Hyperprolactinemia (1.9%)
  • Tumor
  • • Unclassified pituitary adenoma (0.8%)
    • Craniopharyngioma (1.1%)
    • Unclassified malignant tumor (0.4%)
  • Systemic illness (2.6%)
  • Eating disorder (2.3%)
• Eugonadism (23.7%)
• • Anatomic
  • • Congenital absence of the uterus and vagina (CAUV) (16.2%)
    • Cervical atresia (0.4%)
  • Intersex disorders
  • • Androgen insensitivity (1.5%)
    • 17-ketoreductase deficiency (0.4%)
  • Inappropriate feedback (5.3%)

See Differentials.

DIFFERENTIALS

Section 4 of 12  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• Acknowledgments
• Multimedia
• References

WORKUP

Section 5 of 12  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• Acknowledgments
• Multimedia
• References

Lab Studies

In most cases, clinical variables alone are not adequate to define the pathophysiologic mechanism disrupting the menstrual cycle. The clinician must be concerned with an array of potential diseases and disorders involving many organ systems.

Once pregnancy is excluded, a thorough history, review of symptoms, and physical examination are important. If the history and physical examination findings do not reveal the cause of the amenorrhea, a complete blood cell count, urinalysis, and serum chemistries should be evaluated to help rule out systemic disease. Serum prolactin, FSH, estradiol, and thyrotropin levels should also be measured routinely in the initial evaluation of amenorrhea once pregnancy has been excluded.

• Prolactin
• • Prolactin levels in excess of 200 ng/mL are not observed except in the case of prolactin-secreting pituitary adenoma (prolactinoma). In general, the serum prolactin level correlates with the size of the tumor. For more details, see Hyperprolactinemia.
  • Psychotropic drugs, hypothyroidism, stress, and meals can also raise prolactin levels. Repeatedly elevated prolactin levels require further evaluation if the cause is not readily apparent.
• Follicle-stimulating hormone: An FSH level of approximately 40 mIU/mL is indicative of ovarian insufficiency. However, this is assay dependent and some patients have a lower menopausal level of FSH; check the reference range for the laboratory where the test is performed. If a repeat value in 1 month confirms this finding  and amenorrhea still persists, then the diagnosis of premature ovarian failure/primary ovarian insufficiency is confirmed.
• Luteinizing hormone: Luteinizing hormone is elevated in cases of 17-20 lyase deficiency, 17-hydroxylase deficiency, and premature ovarian failure.
• Estradiol: Serum estradiol levels undergo wide fluctuations during the normal menstrual cycle. During the early follicular phase of the menstrual cycle, levels may be lower than 50 pg/mL. During the preovulatory estradiol surge, levels in the range of 400 pg/mL are not uncommon. In healthy menopausal women, estradiol levels are routinely lower than 20 pg/mL.
• Thyrotropin and free thyroxine (T4): Disorders of the thyroid gland may result in menstrual irregularities; however, for it to present as primary amenorrhea is uncommon. Check for thyroid hormones if symptoms of hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism are present.
• Testosterone and dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate: Checking the androgen levels helps identify hyperandrogenic conditions resulting in amenorrhea. For more details, see Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome.

Imaging Studies

• Pelvic ultrasonography may identify congenital abnormalities of the uterus, cervix, and vagina, or absence of these organs. However, a report of absence of uterus on ultrasonography does not always mean that the patient does not have a uterus. In primary amenorrhea in association with estrogen deficient states, the uterine fundus may be underdeveloped and may not be readily visible at the time of ultrasonography to less experienced examiners. With proper estrogen replacement, it may reach the normal size. Pelvic ultrasonography may be helpful in determining ovarian morphology as well. 
• MRI of the pituitary and hypothalamus is often indicated in the evaluation of amenorrhea. Request imaging of the hypothalamic/pituitary area specifically, rather than a study of the entire brain. This achieves higher resolution. MRI is indicated in the following circumstances:  
• • Associated headaches or visual-field cuts
  • Profound estrogen deficiency with otherwise unexplained amenorrhea
  • Hyperprolactinemia

Other Tests

Several validated tools are available to measure dietary intake, mood disorder, and eating disorders. These tools include the Minnesota Nutrition Data Systems evaluation to assess dietary intake, Beck Depression Inventory to assess the mood, Modifiable Activity Questionnaire, Paffenbarger Questionnaire to assess the patient's level of physical activity, Multidimensional Eating Disorder Inventory for anorexia and bulimia¹⁵, and the Bulimia Test-Revised (BULIT-R).¹⁶

TREATMENT

Section 6 of 12  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• Acknowledgments
• Multimedia
• References

Medical Care

Medical care needs are defined by the etiology of the amenorrhea and the desires of the patient. Ideally, treatment should be directed at correcting the underlying pathology. In the case of outflow tract abnormalities, surgery may be indicated. In other cases, correcting the underlying pathology should restore normal ovarian endocrine function and prevent the development of osteoporosis.

• Dopamine agonists are effective in treating hyperprolactinemia. In most cases, this treatment restores normal ovarian endocrine function and ovulation (see Prolactinoma).
• Hormone replacement therapy is required to achieve peak bone density in patients whose underlying pathology cannot be reversed to restore normal endocrine function.
• Women with evidence of hyperandrogenism and disordered menses have many other medical issues that must be addressed (see Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome).

Surgical Care

Some pituitary and hypothalamic tumors may require surgery and, in some cases, radiation therapy (see Pituitary Macroadenomas). The surgical procedure required for other outflow tract abnormalities depends on the specific clinical situation (see Imperforate Hymen).

Consultations

The causes of menstrual cycle disturbance leading to the development of amenorrhea are so diverse that in some complex cases, the situation is best addressed by a multidisciplinary team. For example, a patient with complete androgen resistance (testicular feminization) would benefit from the involvement of experts in endocrinology, human genetics, psychiatry, and reproductive surgery.

• Geneticist: With hereditary causes of amenorrhea, such as Kallmann syndrome, a geneticist's expertise can be helpful in counseling patients and their families regarding the disorder. 
• Medical endocrinologist: In cases of pituitary/hypothalamic tumor, other endocrine disorders (eg, central hypothyroidism, central adrenal insufficiency) may be involved. Generally, the expertise of a medical endocrinologist is required to assist in the treatment of patients who require neurosurgery to treat the underlying condition. In cases of hyperthyroidism or Cushing syndrome, the expertise of a medical endocrinologist is required to treat the underlying pathology.
• Psychiatrist: Cases of major depression, anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, or other major psychiatric disorders warrant consultation with a psychiatrist (see Anorexia Nervosa).
• Reproductive surgeon: In some unusual cases, such as with vaginal agenesis, consult with a reproductive surgeon with extensive experience in the specific disorder.
• Nutritionist: In many cases, exercise-induced amenorrhea is due to an imbalance in energy intake and expenditure. Nutritional counseling to increase energy intake without reducing exercise is a means of reversing the underlying pathology. Women who are underweight or who appear to have nutritional deficiencies should receive nutritional counseling and can be referred to a multidisciplinary team specializing in eating disorders.
• General internal medicine specialist: In certain cases in which an underlying chronic disease process is present, the insights of an internist may be needed.

Activity

More than 8 hours of vigorous exercise a week may cause amenorrhea. As noted above, in some cases this resolves with appropriate adjustment of the diet.

MEDICATION

Section 7 of 12  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• Acknowledgments
• Multimedia
• References

Hormone replacement therapy, consisting of an estrogen and a progestin, is recommended for women with estrogen deficiency.¹⁷ Girls with primary amenorrhea typically do not have symptoms of estrogen deficiency. However, with inadequate estrogen exposure over time, these patients are at increased risk for developing osteoporosis and possibly other health issues.

Young women in whom secondary sex characteristics have failed to develop fully should be exposed initially to very low doses of estrogen in an attempt to mimic the gradual pubertal maturation process. A typical regimen consists of an estrogen with a dosage equivalent to 25 mcg/day of transdermal estradiol (approximately 0.3 mg of conjugated equine estrogen) given unopposed (ie, no progestogen) daily for 6 months with incremental dose increases at 6-month intervals until the required maintenance dose is achieved. Gradual dose escalation allows time to balance estrogen supplementation with need to grow in height, develop secondary sexual characters, and often results in optimal breast development. It also allows time for the young woman to adjust psychologically to her physical maturation.¹⁸

Cyclic progestogen therapy, given 12-14 days per month, should be instituted once vaginal bleeding begins.

Parenteral estrogen (transdermal or vaginal) is the preferred route of administration because it avoids first-pass liver metabolism. Moreover, it is less likely to increase sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) and has little or no effect on circulating lipids, coagulation parameters, or C-reactive protein. However, no long-term controlled studies are available to compare the efficacy and safety of one method over another. Therefore, the choice of therapy should follow consideration of the patient's preferences and the physician's experience.

The role of androgen replacement is unclear at this time and is the subject of ongoing investigation.¹⁹

Drug Category: Estrogens

Administered transdermally, transvaginally, or orally. Appropriate dose for young women with ovarian failure has not been established. The authors recommend full replacement doses for young women. Generally, this is approximately twice as high as doses recommended for hormone replacement therapy in normally postmenopausal women. The authors prefer to administer estradiol by skin patch. This avoids the first-pass effect of oral estrogen on the liver. No controlled studies are available to compare the efficacy and safety of one method over another. Therefore, the choice of therapy should follow consideration of the patient's preferences and the physician's experience.

Drug Category: Progestins

Stop endometrial cell proliferation, allowing organized sloughing of cells after withdrawal. No long-term controlled studies compare efficacy of medroxyprogesterone with oral progesterone in protecting the endometrium from neoplasia at the doses of estrogen generally required for replacement in young women. The authors recommend use medroxyprogesterone as first-line therapy because of longer-term clinical experience with this agent.

FOLLOW-UP

Section 8 of 12  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• Acknowledgments
• Multimedia
• References

Further Outpatient Care

The need for ongoing care is defined by the mechanism disrupting the menstrual cycle and the patient's desires. See patient every 3-6 months for the first 2 years to monitor ovarian hormone replacement and to detect the development of associated conditions that may be related to the original pathogenic mechanism that led to the disruption of the menstrual cycle.

Complications

Loss of menstrual regularity has been associated with an increased risk of wrist and hip fractures related to reduced bone density. A later menarche has been associated with increased fracture rates in later years. Young women with ovarian insufficiency that is unresponsive to therapy require hormone replacement to achieve the peak and maintain bone density. Adolescence is a critical period for bone accretion as over half of peak bone mass is achieved during the teenage years.²⁰ Hormones such as estrogen and androgens are important along with modifiable risk factors such as vitamin D deficiency, calcium intake, nutrition, exercise, and smoking. Adolescents who maximize their bone mass will have an advantage when their bone density declines as they age or due to illness or menopause.

Patient Education

• For patients with ovarian insufficiency that remains after appropriate evaluation and treatment, careful counseling is warranted to stress the need for ongoing attention to the factors that help maintain bone density. Hormone replacement therapy is important for these patients. Other factors to consider are the need for adequate calcium intake (1200-1500 mg/d of elemental calcium) and the need for 20-30 minutes of weight-bearing exercise each day.
• For excellent patient education resources, visit eMedicine's Women's Health Center, Eating Disorders Center, and Pregnancy and Reproduction Center. Also, see eMedicine's patient education articles Amenorrhea, Anorexia Nervosa, Birth Control Overview, and Birth Control FAQs.

MISCELLANEOUS

Section 9 of 12  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• Acknowledgments
• Multimedia
• References

Medical/Legal Pitfalls

Evidence is mounting that amenorrhea is a risk factor for later development of osteoporosis and hip fractures. Both patients and clinicians need to view the ovary as an important endocrine organ that helps maintain healthy bones. Excessive delay in the evaluation and treatment of disordered menses can contribute to osteoporosis. At some point, failure to promptly evaluate for the presence of ovarian insufficiency could become a medicolegal pitfall.

Special Concerns

Having regular menses is a sign of good health. Blood pressure is recognized as an important vital sign that can lead to earlier detection of a disease process that may be silently advancing. In this sense, the menstrual cycle should also be viewed as a vital sign that can lead to earlier detection of the silent disease process of osteoporosis.

Emotional health concerns

Primary amenorrhea and the potential for impaired fertility affect the emotional health of the adolescent and her family. Adolescence encompasses a broad spectrum of emotional maturity, which needs to be considered in assessment and treatment. For the adolescent girl, a reproductive disorder impacts her developing sense of self, body-image, and sexuality, which, in turn, can affect her self-esteem and relationships with others. Because of the sexual nature of a reproductive disorder, feelings of embarrassment, inadequacy, or protectiveness can make it difficult for families. Families should be encouraged to be open and honest regarding the condition and discouraged from keeping the diagnosis a secret.

The family is an emotional unit and a family systems approach to deal with health issues is most appropriate. Parents must first deal with their own feelings about the condition before they can help their child. They must also be provided with tools to build an ongoing conversation with their child. Physicians need to be culturally sensitive because in some cultures a woman's identity in adulthood as a mother could play a crucial role in her life. The objective is to help the adolescent girl formulate positive self-esteem and body image, despite impaired fertility.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Section 10 of 12  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• Acknowledgments
• Multimedia
• References

This work was supported by the Intramural Research Program of the National Institutes of Health.

MULTIMEDIA

Section 11 of 12  

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• Acknowledgments
• Multimedia
• References

Media file 1:  Hypothalamus, pituitary and ovaries form a functional endocrine axis, known as HPO axis with hormonal regulations and feedback loops.
	View Full Size Image
Media type:  Chart

Media file 2:  Primary Amenorrhea flowchart
	View Full Size Image
Media type:  Chart

REFERENCES

Section 12 of 12

• Authors and Editors
• Introduction
• Clinical
• Differentials
• Workup
• Treatment
• Medication
• Follow-up
• Miscellaneous
• Acknowledgments
• Multimedia
• References

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Article Last Updated: Aug 14, 2008