Oral Manifestations of Autoimmune Blistering Diseases

Updated: Feb 11, 2019
  • Author: Nita Chainani-Wu, DMD, MS, MPH, PhD; Chief Editor: William D James, MD  more...
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Overview

Background

Oral lesions are observed commonly in autoimmune blistering skin diseases. Oral lesions can be the predominant or minor clinical manifestation of a given disease. Pemphigus vulgaris (PV) and bullous pemphigoid (BP) are the earliest recognized autoimmune blistering diseases, and, together, they account for about one half of the autoimmune blistering diseases. While most patients with pemphigus vulgaris have oral lesions, which usually are the first manifestation of this disease, only a few patients with bullous pemphigoid have oral lesions. Over the last few decades, many other autoimmune blistering diseases have been delineated, and some of these newly identified diseases have oral manifestations.

This article discusses the oral manifestations of several well-characterized autoimmune blistering diseases, including pemphigus vulgaris, bullous pemphigoid, linear immunoglobulin A (IgA) bullous dermatosis, and paraneoplastic pemphigus (PNP). A group of autoimmune blistering diseases affecting primarily the mucous membranes is termed mucous membrane pemphigoid (MMP) (also termed cicatricial pemphigoid). Because this topic is discussed in a separate article, it is not described in great detail in this article.

Animal models

Spontaneous animal homologues of human autoimmune blistering diseases have been identified in the last 2 decades. [1] Those diseases in which oral involvement occurs include pemphigus vulgaris (dogs, cats), paraneoplastic pemphigus (dog, cat), [2] bullous pemphigoid (dogs, cats, horses, pigs), [3, 4] mucous membrane pemphigoid (dogs, cats), [5] linear IgA bullous dermatosis (dogs), epidermolysis bullosa acquisita (dogs), and bullous systemic lupus erythematosus (1 dog). The histopathologic and immunopathologic findings usually are the same as that of human diseases and are not discussed here.

Pemphigus group

Pemphigus vulgaris is a very rare acantholytic skin disease. In most cases, oral involvement is severe, and the mouth sometimes can be the first site to exhibit lesions. Flaccid vesicles on the gums, tongue, and palate evolve rapidly into erosions and ulcerations with indistinct margins and peripheral sloughing of mucosal epithelium (Nikolsky sign). Pemphigus foliaceus, the most common form of pemphigus observed in animals, affects dogs and cats. It usually does not affect oral and other mucosal membranes.

Pemphigoid group

The pemphigoid group includes the following:

  • Bullous pemphigoid

  • Mucous membrane pemphigoid

  • Epidermolysis bullosa acquisita

  • Bullous systemic lupus erythematosus

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Pathophysiology

As a group, autoimmune blistering skin diseases are recognized as autoantibody-mediated diseases. This group of diseases can be divided into two major subsets, the pemphigus subset and the pemphigoid subset. Whereas the pemphigus subset of diseases is mediated by autoantibodies that target the extracellular skin components that link one epidermal cell to another, the pemphigoid subset is mediated by autoantibodies that target the extracellular skin components that link the skin basement membrane components either to the lowermost layer of epidermal cells or to the dermal components. Accordingly, the pemphigus subset of diseases is termed intraepidermal blistering disease, while the pemphigoid subset of diseases is named subepidermal blistering disease. Passive transfer experiments have demonstrated that purified autoantibodies from patients with the pemphigus group of diseases can induce blister formation when delivered to newborn mice.

Passive transfer experiments using autoantibodies from human patients with two major forms of the pemphigoid group of diseases (ie, bullous pemphigoid, epidermolysis bullosa acquisita) failed to induce clinically observable blisters in newborn mice; however, rabbit antibodies raised against the recombinant proteins encoded by the gene of mouse bullous pemphigoid antigen 2 (BP180) are capable of inducing blisters in newborn mice in a complement-dependent manner. Furthermore, anti-BP180 autoantibodies from patients affected with BP are capable of inducing dermal-epidermal separation in cryosections of normal human skin, further supporting the pathogenic role of BP180.

In addition, rabbit antibodies raised against type VII collagen (epidermolysis bullosa acquisita antigen) are also capable of inducing blisters in mice. So far, no truly active experimental animal models (in which healthy mice are induced to autoimmune disease de novo) are known to facilitate the studies on the induction phase of autoimmune blistering diseases. Nevertheless, autoantibodies can be induced by immunized healthy BALB/c mice with synthetic peptides of the mouse bullous pemphigoid antigen 2 NC16A domain.

In certain patient subsets, the development of the autoimmune disease has been proposed to have been triggered by an immune phenomenon, "epitope spreading," a concept stating that tissue injuries from an inflammatory event may expose the previously hidden autoantigen to autoreactive lymphocytes, leading to autoimmune disease. [6, 7] Possible clinical examples include mucous membrane pemphigoid and paraneoplastic pemphigus. For example, patients who developed ocular mucosal injury secondary to an inflammatory disease termed Stevens-Johnson syndrome are noted to subsequently develop ocular mucous membrane pemphigoid. [8]

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Etiology

Autoimmune blistering diseases generally are caused by autoantibodies targeting the skin components of the epithelial cell surfaces or basement membrane zone. Certain human leukocyte antigen (HLA) alleles have been reported to be associated with autoimmune blistering diseases. For example, HLA-DQB1*0301 is associated strongly with bullous pemphigoid and mucous membrane pemphigoid. [9, 10]

Pemphigus group

Desmoglein-3 is the primary target antigen in pemphigus vulgaris, and desmoglein-1 is the exclusive target antigen in pemphigus foliaceus. In passive transfer experiments, these autoantibodies apparently induced (in newborn mice) blisters that have similar histology as the human diseases. These autoantibodies apparently are capable of inducing the blisters without the help of complement components; however, autoantibodies against desmoglein-1 are present in patients with pemphigus vulgaris and are capable of inducing blisters in newborn mice.

Paraneoplastic pemphigus

No true cause has been firmly established. Some patients have autoantibodies against desmoglein-3, and these autoantibodies can induce blisters in newborn mice. [11] The possible link between the underlying neoplasm and autoimmunity may be due to an immune dysregulation secondary to the presence of neoplasm. In addition to autoantibodies to desmoglein-3, most patients develop autoantibodies to many intracellular epithelial components, desmoplakins I and II, periplakin, envoplakin, BP230 (BPAg1), and a 170-kd membrane protein. Several other smaller proteins are involved.

Autoantibodies to these intracellular components probably develop as a secondary autoimmune response rather than a primary cause. Neoplasms are clearly associated with paraneoplastic pemphigus. The most common associated benign tumor is thymoma, followed by Castleman tumor, a rare and complex lymphoproliferative disease. The most common associated malignant tumor is non-Hodgkin lymphoma, followed by chronic lymphocytic leukemia.

Pemphigoid group

Autoantibodies to BP180 are the likely inducing autoantigen. Passive transfer experiments using rabbit antimouse BP180 antibodies induce blisters in newborn mice, and the blister induction apparently is complement dependent. The target antigen for linear IgA bullous dermatosis (childhood and adult) is a truncated BP180 protein. The target antigen for epidermolysis bullosa acquisita is type VII collagen, particularly the noncollagenous (NC1) domain.

Mucous membrane pemphigoid

Multiple target antigens have been identified, including BP180, laminin-5, laminin-6, type VII collagen, and beta-4 integrin, but no clinical hallmark distinguishes subsets of patients with regard to the target antigen. Rabbit antibodies generated against laminin-5 can induce blisters in newborn mice. Presently, the link between the autoantibodies and the scarring process that characterizes this group of diseases is missing.

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Epidemiology

Frequency

United States

The prevalence at which autoimmune mucocutaneous blistering diseases occur in the United States is not known. Because of the rarity of these diseases and because of the wide clinical heterogeneity, epidemiologic study is difficult.

International

Likewise, the true prevalence of autoimmune mucocutaneous blistering diseases internationally is unknown. Nevertheless, it is now well recognized that this group of diseases does occur throughout Europe, Asia, the Americas, and Arabic countries.

Race

No significant racial predilection for autoimmune blistering skin diseases exists other than an increase in frequency of pemphigus vulgaris in some Jewish populations.

Sex

No sexual predilection for autoimmune blistering skin diseases exists other than a slight predilection of females for mucous membrane pemphigoid.

Age

Autoimmune blistering diseases primarily affect elderly patients, although occasional cases of childhood onset have been reported. The noted exception is linear IgA bullous dermatosis; about one half of patients with this disease have onset during childhood.

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Prognosis

The prognosis for patients with autoimmune blistering diseases generally is quite good. A small percentage of patients with pemphigus vulgaris do not respond well to treatment or may develop serious adverse effects from prednisone, which can lead to a fatal outcome. The prognosis for patients with paraneoplastic pemphigus is poor unless the associated primary neoplasm is found and eradicated.

Mortality/morbidity

The pemphigus vulgaris group of diseases is generally is more severe and has higher mortality than mucous membrane pemphigoid. Both pemphigus and pemphigoid are chronic inflammatory diseases and, therefore, carry significant morbidity from the diseases themselves and from the adverse effects of therapeutic medications.

Pemphigus group

Before the availability of corticosteroids, most patients with pemphigus vulgaris died. The extensively denuded skin surfaces from the broken blisters in these patients made them very susceptible for all kinds of infections, water loss, and electrolyte imbalance. Severe oral erosions interfered with patients' proper eating and drinking and significantly hindered their nutrient intake and the health of their immune functions, thus further reducing their ability to defend against infections. The long-term use of corticosteroids and immunosuppressives agents introduces significant adverse effects (eg, osteoporosis, diabetes, susceptibility to infections) after long-term use. Several cases of cutaneous squamous cell carcinomas and one case of primary brain lymphoma have been reported to develop in patients with pemphigus vulgaris who received long-term immunosuppressive treatments. [6]

Pemphigoid group

As a group, a much lower mortality exists for this group than for the pemphigus group of diseases; nevertheless, the chronicity of the diseases can bring significant morbidity to patients. Adverse effects from chronic use of corticosteroids and immunosuppressives also can contribute to morbidity.

Paraneoplastic pemphigus

This disease is the most resistant to conventional medical treatment. If the primary neoplasm associated with the pemphigus is found and removed completely, patients usually responded to the treatments relatively well and could recover completely; however, if the primary neoplasm is not found or cannot be eradicated completely, the disease will likely lead to a fatal outcome.

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Patient Education

Educate patients with autoimmune diseases about the nature of the disease and the possible adverse effects of long-term use of immunosuppressives. In addition, patients should know about the benefits of taking calcium and vitamin D supplements while using systemic corticosteroids. Finally, educate patients to monitor signs and symptoms of infection in order to report possible complications to physicians in a timely manner.

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